NIZAM OF THE DECCAN
The founder of the AsafJah house of Hyderabad was Kilich Khan, popularly known as Nizam-ul-Mulk. It was Zulfikar Khan who had first conceived the idea of an independent state in the Deccan. But with his death in 1713 the dream remained unfulfilled. Kilich Khan, disgusted with the Mughal emperor who had appointed Mubariz Khan as a full-fledged viceroy of the Deccan, decided to fight Mubariz Khan. He defeated and later killed him in the battle of Shakr-Kheda (AD 1724). He now assumed control of the Deccan. In 1725, he became the viceroy and conferred on himself the title of Asaf-Jah.
AVADH The founder of the independent principality of Avadh was Saadat Khan, popularly known as Burhanul-Mulk. Saadat Khan was a Shia. He had joined in a
conspiracy against the Sayyid brothers, which resulted in his being given a mansab of 5,000 and later of 7,000. Later, driven out of the court, he was prompted to found a new independent state. Saadat .Khan committed suicide due to pressure from Nadir Shah who was demanding a huge booty from him. He was succeeded by Safdar Jang as the Nawab of Avadh.
BENGAL Murshid Kuli Khan was the founder of the independent state of Bengal. He was a capable ruler and made Bengal a prosperous state. He was succeeded in 1727 by his son Shuja-ud-din. His successor, Sarfaraz Khan was
killed in 1740 by Alivardi Khan, the deputy governor of Bihar at Gheria, who assumed power and made himself independent of the Mughal emperor by giving him yearly tribute.
RAJPUTS The Rajputs tried to re-establish their independence in the 18th century. This forced the Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah to march against Ajit Singh (1708), who had formed an alliance with Jai Singh II and Durgadas Rathor. But the alliance was broken and the situation was saved. At one time the Rajputs controlled the entire territory extending from the south of Delhi up to the western coast.
MYSORE Another important state to make its appearance in the eighteenth century was that of Mysore. This territory located at the junction of the Eastern and Western Ghats was ruled by the Wodeyars. Various powers, interested in this territory, turned the area into a constant battlefield. In the end the Mysore state was brought under the rule of Haider Ali who ruled the state but not without troubles. He was involved in constant warfare with the British and so was his son TIpu Sultan.
KERALA Martanda Varma established an independent state of Kerala with Travancore as his capital. He extended the boundaries of his state from Kanyakumari to Cochin. He made efforts to organise his army along the western model and adopted various measures to develop his state.
JATS The agriculturist Jat settlers living around Delhi, Mathura, and Agra revolted against the oppressive policies of Aurangzeb. After some initial setbacks Churaman and Badan Singh succeeded in setting up the Jat state of Bharatpur. But it was under Suraj Mal that Jat power reached its zenith. He not only provided an efficient system of administration but also greatly extended the territory of the state. His state included territories from Ganga in the east to Chambal in the south and included the Subahs of Agra, Mathura, Meerut and Aligarh. However, the Jat state suffered a decline after the death of Suraj Mal in 1763. Thereafter the state split into small areas controlled by petty zamindars who mainly lived by plunder.
SIKHS Guru Gobind Singh transformed the Sikhs into a militant sect in defence of their religion and liberties. Banda Bahadur, who assumed the leadership of the Sikhs in 1708, was defeated and killed. In the wake of the invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali, the Sikhs once again asserted their authority. At this stage they organized themselves into 12 misls or confederacies which exercised control over different parts of the state. The credit for establishing a strong state of Punjab goes to Ranjit Singh. He was the son of Maha Singh, the leader of the Sukarchakiya misl. Ranjit Singh brought under control the area extending from Sutlej to Jhelum. He conquered Lahore in 1799 and Amritsar in 1802. By the Treaty of Amritsar with the British, Ranjit Singh acknowledged the British right over the cisSutlej territories. Ranjit Singh provided an efficient administration. He greatly modernised his army with the help of Europeans. But towards the close of his reign, the English forced him to sign the Tripartite Treaty in 1838 with Shah Shuja and the English Company whereby he agreed to provide passage to the British troops through Punjab with a view to place Shah Shuja on the throne of Kabul. Ranjit Singh died in 1839. His successors could not keep the state intact and gave it up to the British.
MARATHAS Perhaps the most formidable province to emerge was that of the Marathas. Under the capable leadership of the Peshwas, the Marathas uprooted the Mughal authority from Malwa and Gujarat and established their rule. At one time they claimed the right to be the chief inheritors of the Mughal dominion till their authority was challenged by Ahmed Shah Abdali in the Third Battie of Panipat (1761). The Marathas quickly recovered from the defeat and offered the most formidable challenge to the English East India Company in the struggle for political supremacy in India.
Sunday, November 29, 2009
AUTONOMOUS STATES
AUTONOMOUS STATES
The states that emerged at the decline of the Mughal authority may be classified into the following three broad categories.
(i) Successor States These were the states that broke away from the Mughal empire. Avadh, Bengal and Hyderabad belong to this category. These provinces were directly under the control of the Mughal administration. Though they did not challenge the sovereignty of the Mughal empire, the establishment of virtually independent and hereditary authority by their governors showed the emergence of autonomous polity in these territories.
(ii) Independent Kingdoms Mysore, the Rajput states and Kerala fall in this category. These states came into existence primarily due to destabilisation of the Mughal control over the provinces.
(iii) The New States These were the states which were set up by the rebels against the Mughals. The Marathas, the Sikh and the Jat states belong to this category.
The states that emerged at the decline of the Mughal authority may be classified into the following three broad categories.
(i) Successor States These were the states that broke away from the Mughal empire. Avadh, Bengal and Hyderabad belong to this category. These provinces were directly under the control of the Mughal administration. Though they did not challenge the sovereignty of the Mughal empire, the establishment of virtually independent and hereditary authority by their governors showed the emergence of autonomous polity in these territories.
(ii) Independent Kingdoms Mysore, the Rajput states and Kerala fall in this category. These states came into existence primarily due to destabilisation of the Mughal control over the provinces.
(iii) The New States These were the states which were set up by the rebels against the Mughals. The Marathas, the Sikh and the Jat states belong to this category.
CAUSES OF THE DECLINE
CAUSES OF THE DECLINE The Mughal empire reachec its greatest extent in the time of Aurangzeb, but it collapsed with dramatic suddenness within a few decades after his death. Some of the main causes for this downfall were as follows.
(i) The government of the Mughals was a personal despotism and so its success depended on the character 01 the reigning autocrat. The later Mughals were worthless and neglected the administration of the state.
(ii) With the absence of a definite law of succession there always occurred a war of succession; this weakened the stability of the government, and fostered partisanship at the cost of patriotism.
(iii) The degeneration of the rulers led to the degen. eration of the nobility, with factious quarrels and intrigue! costing the empire heavily.
(iv) The deterioration of the army also proved disastrous for the empire.
(v) The empire had become too vast and unwieldy t~ be efficiently governed from a central authority under weal rulers, especially in the medieval conditions of transpod and communication.
(vi) Aurangzeb's religious policy was largely respon sible, causing revolts by Rajputs, Sikhs, Jats and Marathas
(vii) Aurangzeb's Deccan policy was a complete failUl'l and to a major extent caused the downfall of the Mughal empire.
(viii) Invasions of Irani and Durrani kingdoms gave I death-blow to the Mughal empire.
(i) The government of the Mughals was a personal despotism and so its success depended on the character 01 the reigning autocrat. The later Mughals were worthless and neglected the administration of the state.
(ii) With the absence of a definite law of succession there always occurred a war of succession; this weakened the stability of the government, and fostered partisanship at the cost of patriotism.
(iii) The degeneration of the rulers led to the degen. eration of the nobility, with factious quarrels and intrigue! costing the empire heavily.
(iv) The deterioration of the army also proved disastrous for the empire.
(v) The empire had become too vast and unwieldy t~ be efficiently governed from a central authority under weal rulers, especially in the medieval conditions of transpod and communication.
(vi) Aurangzeb's religious policy was largely respon sible, causing revolts by Rajputs, Sikhs, Jats and Marathas
(vii) Aurangzeb's Deccan policy was a complete failUl'l and to a major extent caused the downfall of the Mughal empire.
(viii) Invasions of Irani and Durrani kingdoms gave I death-blow to the Mughal empire.
DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE
DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE
Aurangzeb died in 1707 and a rapid decline of the empire followed. Bahadur Shah (1707-1712) who succeeded Aurangzeb had to face a serious revolt by the Sikhs led by Banda; the Sikhs, persecuted by Aurangzeb, sacked Sirhind. Though Bahadur Shah defeated Banda, the latter escaped from Lohagarh fort. Jahandar Shah (1712-1713) had a shortlived reign, being killed by Farruksiyar who ascended the throne in 1713. He was totally under the Sayyid brothers who have come to be known as 'King Makers'. His reign faced revolts from Rajputs, Jats and Sikhs. He was successful in his campaign against the Sikhs, and executed Banda Bahadur in 1716. Farruksiyar himself was murdered by the Sayyid brothers with Maratha help in 1719. The Sayyid brothers now put Muhammad Shah (1719-1748) on the throne. Ultimately these brothers were murdered by a conspiracy between the emperor and Chin Kilich Khan (Nizam-ul-Mulk). However, Chin Kilich Khan, disgusted by Muhammad Shah's incompetence, retired to the Deccan and made himself independent. Hyderabad, Avadh and Bengal established independent kingdoms.
NADIR SHAH'S INVASION It was in 1738-39 that the Mughal empire received a staggering blow at the hands of Nadir Shah, who had seized the throne of Persia in 1736 and later captured Qandhar from the Afghans. Finding a pretext that the Mughal emperor was giving shelter to Afghan refugees, he marched towards India. In 1739, he defeated the imperial army at Kamal near Panipat.
Muhammad Shah invited Nadir. Shah to the capital fOI negotiating a treaty. But due to al false rumour that Nadil Shah had been killed, the local people killed many Persiar soldiers.
The enraged Nadir Shah ordered a general mas sacre of the local population. Nadir Shah departed fron India with a huge booty which included the world famoUi Peacock throne made by Shah Jahan and the celebratec Koh-i-Noor Aiamond.
AHMAD SHAH ABDALI The weakness of the empin was obvious. The successors of Muhammad Shah were.n( better, and invited further invasions. Ahmad Shah Abdal had decIared himself ruler of Qandhar on Nadir Shah'! assassination in 1747. He invaded India in 1748 whie! proved a fiasco. In 1749 he defeated Muin-ul-Mulk, gOY ernor of Punjab. His third invasion took place in 1752. No\\ he got the submission of the states of Punjab and Sind. H~ invaded India for the fourth time in 1756 during the reigr of Alamgir II. In 1757 he entered Delhi and plundered thl whole region from Agra to Mathura.
In 1758 Raghunath Ra( the Maratha ruler appeared at Delhi at the call of flu Mughal ruler, which again was not liked by Abdali. He onCE again attacked India. At the third battle of Panipat in 1761 the armies of Abdali and the Marathas met and thl Marathas were completely routed. Abdali now nominatec Shah Alam II as emperor.
Bahadur Shah Zafar II (1827-1862) was the last of thE Mughal emperors.
Aurangzeb died in 1707 and a rapid decline of the empire followed. Bahadur Shah (1707-1712) who succeeded Aurangzeb had to face a serious revolt by the Sikhs led by Banda; the Sikhs, persecuted by Aurangzeb, sacked Sirhind. Though Bahadur Shah defeated Banda, the latter escaped from Lohagarh fort. Jahandar Shah (1712-1713) had a shortlived reign, being killed by Farruksiyar who ascended the throne in 1713. He was totally under the Sayyid brothers who have come to be known as 'King Makers'. His reign faced revolts from Rajputs, Jats and Sikhs. He was successful in his campaign against the Sikhs, and executed Banda Bahadur in 1716. Farruksiyar himself was murdered by the Sayyid brothers with Maratha help in 1719. The Sayyid brothers now put Muhammad Shah (1719-1748) on the throne. Ultimately these brothers were murdered by a conspiracy between the emperor and Chin Kilich Khan (Nizam-ul-Mulk). However, Chin Kilich Khan, disgusted by Muhammad Shah's incompetence, retired to the Deccan and made himself independent. Hyderabad, Avadh and Bengal established independent kingdoms.
NADIR SHAH'S INVASION It was in 1738-39 that the Mughal empire received a staggering blow at the hands of Nadir Shah, who had seized the throne of Persia in 1736 and later captured Qandhar from the Afghans. Finding a pretext that the Mughal emperor was giving shelter to Afghan refugees, he marched towards India. In 1739, he defeated the imperial army at Kamal near Panipat.
Muhammad Shah invited Nadir. Shah to the capital fOI negotiating a treaty. But due to al false rumour that Nadil Shah had been killed, the local people killed many Persiar soldiers.
The enraged Nadir Shah ordered a general mas sacre of the local population. Nadir Shah departed fron India with a huge booty which included the world famoUi Peacock throne made by Shah Jahan and the celebratec Koh-i-Noor Aiamond.
AHMAD SHAH ABDALI The weakness of the empin was obvious. The successors of Muhammad Shah were.n( better, and invited further invasions. Ahmad Shah Abdal had decIared himself ruler of Qandhar on Nadir Shah'! assassination in 1747. He invaded India in 1748 whie! proved a fiasco. In 1749 he defeated Muin-ul-Mulk, gOY ernor of Punjab. His third invasion took place in 1752. No\\ he got the submission of the states of Punjab and Sind. H~ invaded India for the fourth time in 1756 during the reigr of Alamgir II. In 1757 he entered Delhi and plundered thl whole region from Agra to Mathura.
In 1758 Raghunath Ra( the Maratha ruler appeared at Delhi at the call of flu Mughal ruler, which again was not liked by Abdali. He onCE again attacked India. At the third battle of Panipat in 1761 the armies of Abdali and the Marathas met and thl Marathas were completely routed. Abdali now nominatec Shah Alam II as emperor.
Bahadur Shah Zafar II (1827-1862) was the last of thE Mughal emperors.
PAINTING & MUSIC
PAINTING
The Mughals were lovers of the art of painting. Humayun is said to have patronised two masterpainters, Abdus Samad and Mir Sayyid AlL They were ordered to paint the famous Dastan-i-Amir Hamzah. Akbar during his reign brought about the synthesis of Indian and Persian styles. Indian themes and landscapes, and colours gained importance. European style was introduced by Portuguese priests in Akbar's court. The most famous of painters were Basawan, Daswanath and Haribans, Abdus Samad and Farruk Beg. Jahangir was a connoisseur of art and a keen collector of historical paintings. Under his influence, Persian influence was eliminated and a new style developed which was purely Indian. Jahangir had a trained eye for the niceties of the art and he claimed that he could identify the hands of several artists in a composite picture. Portrait painting reached a climax in his period. In his time the most famous painters were Aga Raja, Muhammad Nadir and Muhammad Murad, Bishan Das, Manohar and Govardhan.
After his death the art of painting started declining. However, with the artists dispersing to various provincial capitals, development of various other schools of painting took place-the Rajasthani, the Pahari, etc.
Besides the Mughal style there grew up in this age a distinct school of painting in. Rajputana. The Rajput paintings were excellent masterpieces from Hindu mythology, village life and pastimes of the common people. Their pictures are remarkable for their brilliance and decorative effect as well as for their spiritual and emotional impact. Mughal painting had as its themes court scenes, battle scenes and hunting besides portraits.
MUSIC The Mughals appreciated music. Babur is said to have composed songs. Akbar was a lover of music. His court was adorned by famous musicians like Tansen of Gwalior and Baz Bahadur of Malwa. Shah Jahan was fond of vocal and instrumental music. The two great Hindu musicians of his time were Jagannath and Janardhan Bhatta. But Aurangzeb who was a puritan dismissed singing from his court. However, ironically, the largest number of books on classical music were written in his reign.
The Mughals were lovers of the art of painting. Humayun is said to have patronised two masterpainters, Abdus Samad and Mir Sayyid AlL They were ordered to paint the famous Dastan-i-Amir Hamzah. Akbar during his reign brought about the synthesis of Indian and Persian styles. Indian themes and landscapes, and colours gained importance. European style was introduced by Portuguese priests in Akbar's court. The most famous of painters were Basawan, Daswanath and Haribans, Abdus Samad and Farruk Beg. Jahangir was a connoisseur of art and a keen collector of historical paintings. Under his influence, Persian influence was eliminated and a new style developed which was purely Indian. Jahangir had a trained eye for the niceties of the art and he claimed that he could identify the hands of several artists in a composite picture. Portrait painting reached a climax in his period. In his time the most famous painters were Aga Raja, Muhammad Nadir and Muhammad Murad, Bishan Das, Manohar and Govardhan.
After his death the art of painting started declining. However, with the artists dispersing to various provincial capitals, development of various other schools of painting took place-the Rajasthani, the Pahari, etc.
Besides the Mughal style there grew up in this age a distinct school of painting in. Rajputana. The Rajput paintings were excellent masterpieces from Hindu mythology, village life and pastimes of the common people. Their pictures are remarkable for their brilliance and decorative effect as well as for their spiritual and emotional impact. Mughal painting had as its themes court scenes, battle scenes and hunting besides portraits.
MUSIC The Mughals appreciated music. Babur is said to have composed songs. Akbar was a lover of music. His court was adorned by famous musicians like Tansen of Gwalior and Baz Bahadur of Malwa. Shah Jahan was fond of vocal and instrumental music. The two great Hindu musicians of his time were Jagannath and Janardhan Bhatta. But Aurangzeb who was a puritan dismissed singing from his court. However, ironically, the largest number of books on classical music were written in his reign.
LITERATURE
LITERATURE
The Mughal emperors were patrons of literature and they did much to remove the barriers between Hindus and Muslims to promote a happy fusion of t..wtures. In this connection, we may mention the name ot' 'Malik Muhammad Jayasi who in his Padmavat describes the story of Padmini, and Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan whose exquisite dohas are still read and admired all over northern India. It was Akbar's patronage that gave a vigorous stimulus to literary activity. The Persian literature of his reign comprised historical works, translations and poetry. The great historical works of his reign are the Akbarnamah and Ain-i-Akbari of Abul Fazal, the Muntkhab-ul-Twarikh by Badauni and Tabaqat-i-Akbari. by Nizam-ud-din Ahmed. Akbar was a keen student of Hindu culture and so by his orders many Sanskrit works wer~ translated into Persian. Badauni translated Ramayana and Faizi the Lilavati. The Mahabharata was translated and renamed Razm-namah. The translator of the Atharva Veda was Hazi Ibrahim Sarhindi. Other works translated were Rajatarangini and Panchatantra. Among the important poets of the period were Ghizali, Faizi and Muhammad Hussain Naziri. Jahangir also had a fine taste for literature and his memoirs are second only to that of Babur. During Shah Jahan's period many historical works were composed i.e. Padshahnamah by Abdul Hamid Lahori, Shah-Jahan-namah. by Inayat Khan etc. Aurangzeb was a learned man but he disliked history and poetry. His taste was for Muslim theology and jurisprudence of which he was a critical writer. It was under him that the Fatwahi-Alamgiri was written. The most famous history of his reign, the Muntakhab-ul-Lubab of Khafi Khan, was prepared in secrecy.
This period has been described as the "Augustan Age of Hindustani Literature" as Akbar gave impetus to Hindi poetry. Persons like Birbal, Raja Man Singh, etc. were poets of no mean order. Among the most notable poet was Tulsidas who wrote the famous Ramcharitamanas. Surdas, the blind bard of Agra, wrote numerous verses in Brij Bhasa, the most important being Sur Sugar. The two famous poets of Shah Jahan's time were Sundar, the author of Sundar Srinagar, and Bihari Lal, the author of Satsai. In Bengal there developed in this period remarkable literature dealing with the life of Chaitanya Deva.
The Mughals did 'not have any systematic organisation for imparting education. Some sort of elementary education was imparted in maktabs and pathsalas. Further it was mainly confined to the upper sections of society and the clergy. Most Mughal emperors were educated and so were their ladies. Gulbadan Begum was an accomplished lady. She wrote the Humayun namah. Nur Jahan, Mumtaz Mahal, Jahanara Begum and Zeb-un-Nisa were highly educated ladies.
The Mughal emperors were patrons of literature and they did much to remove the barriers between Hindus and Muslims to promote a happy fusion of t..wtures. In this connection, we may mention the name ot' 'Malik Muhammad Jayasi who in his Padmavat describes the story of Padmini, and Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan whose exquisite dohas are still read and admired all over northern India. It was Akbar's patronage that gave a vigorous stimulus to literary activity. The Persian literature of his reign comprised historical works, translations and poetry. The great historical works of his reign are the Akbarnamah and Ain-i-Akbari of Abul Fazal, the Muntkhab-ul-Twarikh by Badauni and Tabaqat-i-Akbari. by Nizam-ud-din Ahmed. Akbar was a keen student of Hindu culture and so by his orders many Sanskrit works wer~ translated into Persian. Badauni translated Ramayana and Faizi the Lilavati. The Mahabharata was translated and renamed Razm-namah. The translator of the Atharva Veda was Hazi Ibrahim Sarhindi. Other works translated were Rajatarangini and Panchatantra. Among the important poets of the period were Ghizali, Faizi and Muhammad Hussain Naziri. Jahangir also had a fine taste for literature and his memoirs are second only to that of Babur. During Shah Jahan's period many historical works were composed i.e. Padshahnamah by Abdul Hamid Lahori, Shah-Jahan-namah. by Inayat Khan etc. Aurangzeb was a learned man but he disliked history and poetry. His taste was for Muslim theology and jurisprudence of which he was a critical writer. It was under him that the Fatwahi-Alamgiri was written. The most famous history of his reign, the Muntakhab-ul-Lubab of Khafi Khan, was prepared in secrecy.
This period has been described as the "Augustan Age of Hindustani Literature" as Akbar gave impetus to Hindi poetry. Persons like Birbal, Raja Man Singh, etc. were poets of no mean order. Among the most notable poet was Tulsidas who wrote the famous Ramcharitamanas. Surdas, the blind bard of Agra, wrote numerous verses in Brij Bhasa, the most important being Sur Sugar. The two famous poets of Shah Jahan's time were Sundar, the author of Sundar Srinagar, and Bihari Lal, the author of Satsai. In Bengal there developed in this period remarkable literature dealing with the life of Chaitanya Deva.
The Mughals did 'not have any systematic organisation for imparting education. Some sort of elementary education was imparted in maktabs and pathsalas. Further it was mainly confined to the upper sections of society and the clergy. Most Mughal emperors were educated and so were their ladies. Gulbadan Begum was an accomplished lady. She wrote the Humayun namah. Nur Jahan, Mumtaz Mahal, Jahanara Begum and Zeb-un-Nisa were highly educated ladies.
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS
The Mughal period saw remarkable cultural developme in which Indian and Islamic traditions were fused into composite style.
ARCHITECTURE The Mughals were prolific builde The buildings of Babur have perished by now except rn one at Kabuli Bagh at Panipat and the other, the Jami Masj at Sambhal. Humayun's troubled reign left him little opportunity to ind~ge in artistic taste. Only one mosque of his time still stands-at Fatehabad in Punjab.
Sher Shah Suri who dispossessed Humayun was a great builder. The most remarkable buildings of his time are the mosque in the Purana Quila near Delhi and his own tomb at Sasaram in Bihar. The new style of architecture tiegun by Sher Shah was greatly developed by Akbar who was the first Mughal emperor who had the time to undertake construction on a large scale. Most of the buildings built during his reign were of red sandstone. One of his earliest buildings was the tomb of Humayun at Delhi, amidst a welliaid-out garden. He adorned his capital, Agra, with magnificent buildings such as the fort, the Diwan-iAm, the DiiiJan-i-Khas and the palace known as Jahangiri Mahal. But his most important buildings are to be found at Fatehpur Sikri, the capital township he founded. The most impressive buildings of Fatehpur Sikri are the tomb of Sheikh Salim Chishti and the Buland Darwaza, the Panch Mahal and Jodha Bai's palace. Akbar combined Persian, Indian and central Asian styles. His mausoleum at Sikandara is a unique building modelled on the Buddhist viharas of India. It was planned by Akbar but built by Jahangir.
Jahangir had fine artistic sense but his taste lay more in painting. The two most important buildings of his reign are the tomb of Akbar and the tomb of ltimad-ud-daulah. The latter was built by Nur Jahan over the grave of her
father. It was built in white marble and is one of the earliest buildings to be decorated with pietra dura or inlaying of semi-precious stones of different colours.
Shah Jahan was a most prolific and magnificent builder. In exquisite beauty of form, in symmetry of design and in skilful decoration Shah Jahan's buildings are unequalled. Of his buildings the most important are the tomb of Jahangir
, at Lahore, the Diwan-i-Am, the Diwan-i-Khas at Red Fort and the Jama Masjid in Delhi. The Moti Masjid in Agra Fort is remarkable for its purity and unadorned beauty. But the finest of Mughal art is the famous Taj Mahal, a noble mausoleum erected by Shah Jahan over the grave of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal. The master-architect under whose guidance the building was designed and completed was Ustad lsa. The construction of this building was completed in 22 years. Pietra dura work, delicate marble screens and chhatris are special artistic features in this monument. With Shah Jahan's death, Mughal art began to decline. His puritanical son Aurangzeb 'cared little for architecture. His only building worth mentioning is the Badshahi Mosque.
The special contribution of the Mughals was the laying out of beautiful gardens. Babur laid the first such garden in Agra-the Nur-i-Afshan. All the Mughal buildings generally incorporate gardens. Jahangir, perhaps, is most famous for his gardens-Shalimar at Srinagar and the garden in Lahore. Asaf Khan, Nur Jahan's brother laid out the famous Nishat Bagh in Srinagar.Scientifically planned, these gardens made a careful selection of plants and had well laid-out waterways and fountains.
The Mughal period saw remarkable cultural developme in which Indian and Islamic traditions were fused into composite style.
ARCHITECTURE The Mughals were prolific builde The buildings of Babur have perished by now except rn one at Kabuli Bagh at Panipat and the other, the Jami Masj at Sambhal. Humayun's troubled reign left him little opportunity to ind~ge in artistic taste. Only one mosque of his time still stands-at Fatehabad in Punjab.
Sher Shah Suri who dispossessed Humayun was a great builder. The most remarkable buildings of his time are the mosque in the Purana Quila near Delhi and his own tomb at Sasaram in Bihar. The new style of architecture tiegun by Sher Shah was greatly developed by Akbar who was the first Mughal emperor who had the time to undertake construction on a large scale. Most of the buildings built during his reign were of red sandstone. One of his earliest buildings was the tomb of Humayun at Delhi, amidst a welliaid-out garden. He adorned his capital, Agra, with magnificent buildings such as the fort, the Diwan-iAm, the DiiiJan-i-Khas and the palace known as Jahangiri Mahal. But his most important buildings are to be found at Fatehpur Sikri, the capital township he founded. The most impressive buildings of Fatehpur Sikri are the tomb of Sheikh Salim Chishti and the Buland Darwaza, the Panch Mahal and Jodha Bai's palace. Akbar combined Persian, Indian and central Asian styles. His mausoleum at Sikandara is a unique building modelled on the Buddhist viharas of India. It was planned by Akbar but built by Jahangir.
Jahangir had fine artistic sense but his taste lay more in painting. The two most important buildings of his reign are the tomb of Akbar and the tomb of ltimad-ud-daulah. The latter was built by Nur Jahan over the grave of her
father. It was built in white marble and is one of the earliest buildings to be decorated with pietra dura or inlaying of semi-precious stones of different colours.
Shah Jahan was a most prolific and magnificent builder. In exquisite beauty of form, in symmetry of design and in skilful decoration Shah Jahan's buildings are unequalled. Of his buildings the most important are the tomb of Jahangir
, at Lahore, the Diwan-i-Am, the Diwan-i-Khas at Red Fort and the Jama Masjid in Delhi. The Moti Masjid in Agra Fort is remarkable for its purity and unadorned beauty. But the finest of Mughal art is the famous Taj Mahal, a noble mausoleum erected by Shah Jahan over the grave of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal. The master-architect under whose guidance the building was designed and completed was Ustad lsa. The construction of this building was completed in 22 years. Pietra dura work, delicate marble screens and chhatris are special artistic features in this monument. With Shah Jahan's death, Mughal art began to decline. His puritanical son Aurangzeb 'cared little for architecture. His only building worth mentioning is the Badshahi Mosque.
The special contribution of the Mughals was the laying out of beautiful gardens. Babur laid the first such garden in Agra-the Nur-i-Afshan. All the Mughal buildings generally incorporate gardens. Jahangir, perhaps, is most famous for his gardens-Shalimar at Srinagar and the garden in Lahore. Asaf Khan, Nur Jahan's brother laid out the famous Nishat Bagh in Srinagar.Scientifically planned, these gardens made a careful selection of plants and had well laid-out waterways and fountains.
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