SOCIAL CONDITIONS
The society in the time of the Mughals was to a large exter
feudal in nature. It was stratified into different grades, , the top of which was the king. Below him were the offici. nobles, the mansabdars. The common people formed soml thing like an unprivileged class and plied their humb] trades and professions. There was a considerable gap i standards of living between the nobility and the commo people.
Among the social customs, the two most prominel were sati and child marriage. Akbar tried to mitigate tl evils but with little success. The purdah system was in vOgl. both among the Hindus and Muslims. The relations b tween the Hindus. and Muslims was much better than was in the Sultanate period.
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
The economic condition of India was good. Trade at commerce flourished and it is common knowledge that t1 nations of Europe vied with one another to have a sha in India's lucrative trade. The Mughal emperors encouragl production through both agriculture and industries. Besid edible crops, the agricultural products included cotto indigo and opium. Tobacco was introduced in about 16C Its consumption increased rapidly, so that Jahangir prohi ited smoking in 1617. In the Mughal age crafts.aJ industries were both private and state-owned. India carri~ on an extensive foreign trade. The principal articles export to Europe and other countries were indigo, opiw saltpetre, pepper, etc. Its imports included horses, Chine procelain and African slaves. The principal ports we Surat, Cambay, Cochin, and Masulipatam.
Sunday, November 29, 2009
Principles of Tawahid-i-Ilahi or Din-i-Ilahi
Principles of Tawahid-i-Ilahi or Din-i-Ilahi Aimed at achieving a synthesis of all religions, Akbar's Din-i-llahi's major principles include:
(i) God is great (Allah-o-Akbar)
(ii) Initiations would be performed on Sunday.
(iii) The novice would place his head at the emperor's feat. The emperor would raise him up and give him the formula (Shast).
(iv) The initiates would abstain from meat as far as possible and give a sumptuous feast and alms on their birthday.
(v) There would be no sacred scriptures, place of worship or rituals (except initiation).
(vi) Every adherent should take oath of doing good to everybody. .
(vii) Followers should show respect to all religions.
Akbar's efforts at social reform are also noteworthy. He riage and raised the age of marriage. He even tried to makl education broad-based and secular.
Jahangir and Shah Jahan pursued the same toleran policy though at times there were aberrations. Aurangze1 was a staunch Sunni but he was intolerant of other faith! He reversed the policy of Akbar, and this partly led to th decline of Mughal power after his death.
(i) God is great (Allah-o-Akbar)
(ii) Initiations would be performed on Sunday.
(iii) The novice would place his head at the emperor's feat. The emperor would raise him up and give him the formula (Shast).
(iv) The initiates would abstain from meat as far as possible and give a sumptuous feast and alms on their birthday.
(v) There would be no sacred scriptures, place of worship or rituals (except initiation).
(vi) Every adherent should take oath of doing good to everybody. .
(vii) Followers should show respect to all religions.
Akbar's efforts at social reform are also noteworthy. He riage and raised the age of marriage. He even tried to makl education broad-based and secular.
Jahangir and Shah Jahan pursued the same toleran policy though at times there were aberrations. Aurangze1 was a staunch Sunni but he was intolerant of other faith! He reversed the policy of Akbar, and this partly led to th decline of Mughal power after his death.
RELIGIOUS POLICY
RELIGIOUS POLICY
The religious policy of the Mughal emperors was, on the whole, a tolerant one. Though staunch Sunnis personally, Babur and Humayun were tolerant. Akbar's policy was positively motivated towards achieving the cultural unity of India. Akbar's was a liberal and enlightened policy. He abolished pilgrim tax and jaziya in 1563 and 1564 respectively.
Akbar's religious views undKrwent a process of evolution. Though brought up as an orthodox Sunni Muslim he was greatly influenced by the mysticism of the Sufi doctrines, especially when he came in contact with the two brilliant brothers, Faizi and Abdul Fazal, who were Sufis. He invited learned professors of various religions to his Ibadat KJuzna, the hall of worship he built at Fatehpur Sikri
in 1575. Here he gave impartial hearing to all religious experts-Hindu, Muslim, Jain, Christian and Zoroastrian.
He was against rigid orthodoxy and narrow sectarianism of the Sunnis, who were bitterly opposed to his tolerant policy. Hence at the suggestion of Shaikh Mubarak, father of Abdul Fazal and Faizi, Akbar assumed the role of the spiritual leader of Islam. In 1579, he issued the so-called Infallibility Decree (Mahzar) in this regard. This decree made him the 'Pope as well as king', by which he appropriated to himself the right to choose any interpretation of the Quran in the interest of public good. This ended the dominance of bigots. In 1582, he promulgated Din-i-Ilahi, a new religion. The underlying principle .was Suleh-i-Kul (universal toleration). There was belief in unity of God, with the mingling of some Hindu, Jain and Persian doctrines. The new system was called Tawahid-i-Ilahi or Divine Monotheism. Among the principle members there was only one Hindu, Raja Birbal. Din-i-Ilahi did not swvive after Akbar's death.
The religious policy of the Mughal emperors was, on the whole, a tolerant one. Though staunch Sunnis personally, Babur and Humayun were tolerant. Akbar's policy was positively motivated towards achieving the cultural unity of India. Akbar's was a liberal and enlightened policy. He abolished pilgrim tax and jaziya in 1563 and 1564 respectively.
Akbar's religious views undKrwent a process of evolution. Though brought up as an orthodox Sunni Muslim he was greatly influenced by the mysticism of the Sufi doctrines, especially when he came in contact with the two brilliant brothers, Faizi and Abdul Fazal, who were Sufis. He invited learned professors of various religions to his Ibadat KJuzna, the hall of worship he built at Fatehpur Sikri
in 1575. Here he gave impartial hearing to all religious experts-Hindu, Muslim, Jain, Christian and Zoroastrian.
He was against rigid orthodoxy and narrow sectarianism of the Sunnis, who were bitterly opposed to his tolerant policy. Hence at the suggestion of Shaikh Mubarak, father of Abdul Fazal and Faizi, Akbar assumed the role of the spiritual leader of Islam. In 1579, he issued the so-called Infallibility Decree (Mahzar) in this regard. This decree made him the 'Pope as well as king', by which he appropriated to himself the right to choose any interpretation of the Quran in the interest of public good. This ended the dominance of bigots. In 1582, he promulgated Din-i-Ilahi, a new religion. The underlying principle .was Suleh-i-Kul (universal toleration). There was belief in unity of God, with the mingling of some Hindu, Jain and Persian doctrines. The new system was called Tawahid-i-Ilahi or Divine Monotheism. Among the principle members there was only one Hindu, Raja Birbal. Din-i-Ilahi did not swvive after Akbar's death.
DECCAN POLICY
DECCAN POLICY
Babur and Humayun had no time to think of the Deccan. Akbar was the first Mughal ruler who turned his attention towards the Deccan. He wanted to expand his empire and also limit the growing power of the Portuguese. Thus the motive behind his policy was political. The motive of Jahangir and Shah Jahan also remained the same. However, Aurangzeb added religious motive as well to it. He desired to destroy not only the newly risen power of the Marathas but also the Shia states of Bijapur and Golconda. Besides, the Mughal emperors, till the reign of Shah Jahan, remained satisfied with forcing the sates of the south to accept their suzerainty and did not insist on annexing them. Aurangzeb, however, attempted to annex them to the Mughal empire. Though he succeeded in his designs, his success was short-lived. Very soon the Deccan was to become his graveyard. His period thus witnessed not only the successful completion of the Deccan policy but also its failure, for the economy suffered and the centralised administration could not control such a vast area effectively.
Babur and Humayun had no time to think of the Deccan. Akbar was the first Mughal ruler who turned his attention towards the Deccan. He wanted to expand his empire and also limit the growing power of the Portuguese. Thus the motive behind his policy was political. The motive of Jahangir and Shah Jahan also remained the same. However, Aurangzeb added religious motive as well to it. He desired to destroy not only the newly risen power of the Marathas but also the Shia states of Bijapur and Golconda. Besides, the Mughal emperors, till the reign of Shah Jahan, remained satisfied with forcing the sates of the south to accept their suzerainty and did not insist on annexing them. Aurangzeb, however, attempted to annex them to the Mughal empire. Though he succeeded in his designs, his success was short-lived. Very soon the Deccan was to become his graveyard. His period thus witnessed not only the successful completion of the Deccan policy but also its failure, for the economy suffered and the centralised administration could not control such a vast area effectively.
RAJPUT POLICY
RAJPUT POLICY Babur and Humayun had strained relations with the Rajputs. It was only Akbar who rightly perceived that the Rajputs were a very brave and courageous people who could not be easily crushed by warfare. He therefore set himself to the task of winning over the Rajputs. He entered into a scheme of matri'monial alliances with the Rajputs. He started giving high positions to the Rajputs in Mughal service and treated them on par with the Mughal nobility. He granted freedom of worship and conscience to the Rajputs. Those who allied themselves to Akbar were largely left in charge of their kingdoms. Where conciliation failed he resorted to warfare. His policy of 'carrot and stick' won over the Rajputs and they became a part and parcel of the Mughal empire.
Jahangir continued the Rajput policy of his father. In the reign of Shah Jahan also the Rajputs continued to serve the empire though they did not have the prominent position which they enjoyed at the time I of Akbar. Aurangzeb negated the earlier policy and thereby undid the work of Akbar. He turned valuable friends into dangerous foes.
Jahangir continued the Rajput policy of his father. In the reign of Shah Jahan also the Rajputs continued to serve the empire though they did not have the prominent position which they enjoyed at the time I of Akbar. Aurangzeb negated the earlier policy and thereby undid the work of Akbar. He turned valuable friends into dangerous foes.
REVENUE
REVENUE The Mughals effected considerable improvement in the system of revenue administration. Akbar revived the system followed by Sher Shah and also introduced a number of reforms in it. He appointed Todar Mal as his finance minister (diwan-i-ashraf) in 1582. With this, a new era of economic reforms began. Until then, the practice had been to fix the assessment every year on the basis of the yield of the soil and current prices. The state's demand thus varied from year to year, causing great inconvenience especially when the empire increased in size. To obviate this difficulty Todar Mal set up a regulation or standard system known as the zabti system.
According to it, lands were accurately surveyed and for this purpose a stiff pole was substituted for the loose rope whose length fluctuated with the change of seasons. Lands were classified into four classes: (i) polaj or land which was not allowed to remain fallow and was annually cultivated; (ii) parauti or land occasionally left fallow to let it recuperate its productive strength; (iii) chachar or land left fallow for three or four years; (iv) banjar or land remaining uncultivated for five years or more. The first two classes were subdivided into three grades according to their fertility, and the average produce was calculated from the mean of the three grades.
The demand of the state was fixed at one-third of the average produce. The cash rates varied according to crops and were fixed on the average of ten years' actuals, that is, from the past experience of ten years (dahsala). The settlement under this system was made directly with the cultivator. It was applied to northern India. Gujarat and parts of the Deccan.
Besides the zabti, there were two other systems, namely, the ghallabaksh based upon the sharing of crop and the nasaq or arbitrary group assessment somewhat resembling the zamindari settlement. The former prevailed in Sind, Kabul and Kashmir and the latter in Bengal.
According to it, lands were accurately surveyed and for this purpose a stiff pole was substituted for the loose rope whose length fluctuated with the change of seasons. Lands were classified into four classes: (i) polaj or land which was not allowed to remain fallow and was annually cultivated; (ii) parauti or land occasionally left fallow to let it recuperate its productive strength; (iii) chachar or land left fallow for three or four years; (iv) banjar or land remaining uncultivated for five years or more. The first two classes were subdivided into three grades according to their fertility, and the average produce was calculated from the mean of the three grades.
The demand of the state was fixed at one-third of the average produce. The cash rates varied according to crops and were fixed on the average of ten years' actuals, that is, from the past experience of ten years (dahsala). The settlement under this system was made directly with the cultivator. It was applied to northern India. Gujarat and parts of the Deccan.
Besides the zabti, there were two other systems, namely, the ghallabaksh based upon the sharing of crop and the nasaq or arbitrary group assessment somewhat resembling the zamindari settlement. The former prevailed in Sind, Kabul and Kashmir and the latter in Bengal.
Changes in Akbar's Mansabdari System
Changes in Akbar's Mansabdari System Jahangir and Shah Jahan introduced new systems into the original mansabdari system of Akbar. While the system introduced by Jahangir was called du-aspah sih-aspah, the one brought out by Shah Jahan was the month-ratio or month-scale system.
(i) Du-aspah sih-aspah system The term du-aspah sihaspah literally means trooper with two or three horses. Under this system, selected nobles could be allowed to maintain a large quota of soldiers, without making any change in their Jat rank. It implied that a mansabdar or noble holding du-aspah sih-aspah rank had to maintain double the quota of troopers indicated by his sawar rank. They were paid accordingly.
(ii) Month-ratio or Month-scale system It was a new scaling device under which the salaries of mansabdars were put on a month scale: ten months, eight months, six months or even less. The obligations of the mansabdars for maintaining a quota of sawars were brought down accordingly. The month-scale system was applied to both jagirs and those who were paid in cash.
The mansabsari system was not without defects. As the soldiers were recruited and paid by the mansabdars, their loyalty and attachment were to their immediate master rather than to the emperor. This gap between the emperor and the bulk of his army was a source of serious danger to the government.
(i) Du-aspah sih-aspah system The term du-aspah sihaspah literally means trooper with two or three horses. Under this system, selected nobles could be allowed to maintain a large quota of soldiers, without making any change in their Jat rank. It implied that a mansabdar or noble holding du-aspah sih-aspah rank had to maintain double the quota of troopers indicated by his sawar rank. They were paid accordingly.
(ii) Month-ratio or Month-scale system It was a new scaling device under which the salaries of mansabdars were put on a month scale: ten months, eight months, six months or even less. The obligations of the mansabdars for maintaining a quota of sawars were brought down accordingly. The month-scale system was applied to both jagirs and those who were paid in cash.
The mansabsari system was not without defects. As the soldiers were recruited and paid by the mansabdars, their loyalty and attachment were to their immediate master rather than to the emperor. This gap between the emperor and the bulk of his army was a source of serious danger to the government.
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