NIZAM OF THE DECCAN
The founder of the AsafJah house of Hyderabad was Kilich Khan, popularly known as Nizam-ul-Mulk. It was Zulfikar Khan who had first conceived the idea of an independent state in the Deccan. But with his death in 1713 the dream remained unfulfilled. Kilich Khan, disgusted with the Mughal emperor who had appointed Mubariz Khan as a full-fledged viceroy of the Deccan, decided to fight Mubariz Khan. He defeated and later killed him in the battle of Shakr-Kheda (AD 1724). He now assumed control of the Deccan. In 1725, he became the viceroy and conferred on himself the title of Asaf-Jah.
AVADH The founder of the independent principality of Avadh was Saadat Khan, popularly known as Burhanul-Mulk. Saadat Khan was a Shia. He had joined in a
conspiracy against the Sayyid brothers, which resulted in his being given a mansab of 5,000 and later of 7,000. Later, driven out of the court, he was prompted to found a new independent state. Saadat .Khan committed suicide due to pressure from Nadir Shah who was demanding a huge booty from him. He was succeeded by Safdar Jang as the Nawab of Avadh.
BENGAL Murshid Kuli Khan was the founder of the independent state of Bengal. He was a capable ruler and made Bengal a prosperous state. He was succeeded in 1727 by his son Shuja-ud-din. His successor, Sarfaraz Khan was
killed in 1740 by Alivardi Khan, the deputy governor of Bihar at Gheria, who assumed power and made himself independent of the Mughal emperor by giving him yearly tribute.
RAJPUTS The Rajputs tried to re-establish their independence in the 18th century. This forced the Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah to march against Ajit Singh (1708), who had formed an alliance with Jai Singh II and Durgadas Rathor. But the alliance was broken and the situation was saved. At one time the Rajputs controlled the entire territory extending from the south of Delhi up to the western coast.
MYSORE Another important state to make its appearance in the eighteenth century was that of Mysore. This territory located at the junction of the Eastern and Western Ghats was ruled by the Wodeyars. Various powers, interested in this territory, turned the area into a constant battlefield. In the end the Mysore state was brought under the rule of Haider Ali who ruled the state but not without troubles. He was involved in constant warfare with the British and so was his son TIpu Sultan.
KERALA Martanda Varma established an independent state of Kerala with Travancore as his capital. He extended the boundaries of his state from Kanyakumari to Cochin. He made efforts to organise his army along the western model and adopted various measures to develop his state.
JATS The agriculturist Jat settlers living around Delhi, Mathura, and Agra revolted against the oppressive policies of Aurangzeb. After some initial setbacks Churaman and Badan Singh succeeded in setting up the Jat state of Bharatpur. But it was under Suraj Mal that Jat power reached its zenith. He not only provided an efficient system of administration but also greatly extended the territory of the state. His state included territories from Ganga in the east to Chambal in the south and included the Subahs of Agra, Mathura, Meerut and Aligarh. However, the Jat state suffered a decline after the death of Suraj Mal in 1763. Thereafter the state split into small areas controlled by petty zamindars who mainly lived by plunder.
SIKHS Guru Gobind Singh transformed the Sikhs into a militant sect in defence of their religion and liberties. Banda Bahadur, who assumed the leadership of the Sikhs in 1708, was defeated and killed. In the wake of the invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali, the Sikhs once again asserted their authority. At this stage they organized themselves into 12 misls or confederacies which exercised control over different parts of the state. The credit for establishing a strong state of Punjab goes to Ranjit Singh. He was the son of Maha Singh, the leader of the Sukarchakiya misl. Ranjit Singh brought under control the area extending from Sutlej to Jhelum. He conquered Lahore in 1799 and Amritsar in 1802. By the Treaty of Amritsar with the British, Ranjit Singh acknowledged the British right over the cisSutlej territories. Ranjit Singh provided an efficient administration. He greatly modernised his army with the help of Europeans. But towards the close of his reign, the English forced him to sign the Tripartite Treaty in 1838 with Shah Shuja and the English Company whereby he agreed to provide passage to the British troops through Punjab with a view to place Shah Shuja on the throne of Kabul. Ranjit Singh died in 1839. His successors could not keep the state intact and gave it up to the British.
MARATHAS Perhaps the most formidable province to emerge was that of the Marathas. Under the capable leadership of the Peshwas, the Marathas uprooted the Mughal authority from Malwa and Gujarat and established their rule. At one time they claimed the right to be the chief inheritors of the Mughal dominion till their authority was challenged by Ahmed Shah Abdali in the Third Battie of Panipat (1761). The Marathas quickly recovered from the defeat and offered the most formidable challenge to the English East India Company in the struggle for political supremacy in India.
Sunday, November 29, 2009
AUTONOMOUS STATES
AUTONOMOUS STATES
The states that emerged at the decline of the Mughal authority may be classified into the following three broad categories.
(i) Successor States These were the states that broke away from the Mughal empire. Avadh, Bengal and Hyderabad belong to this category. These provinces were directly under the control of the Mughal administration. Though they did not challenge the sovereignty of the Mughal empire, the establishment of virtually independent and hereditary authority by their governors showed the emergence of autonomous polity in these territories.
(ii) Independent Kingdoms Mysore, the Rajput states and Kerala fall in this category. These states came into existence primarily due to destabilisation of the Mughal control over the provinces.
(iii) The New States These were the states which were set up by the rebels against the Mughals. The Marathas, the Sikh and the Jat states belong to this category.
The states that emerged at the decline of the Mughal authority may be classified into the following three broad categories.
(i) Successor States These were the states that broke away from the Mughal empire. Avadh, Bengal and Hyderabad belong to this category. These provinces were directly under the control of the Mughal administration. Though they did not challenge the sovereignty of the Mughal empire, the establishment of virtually independent and hereditary authority by their governors showed the emergence of autonomous polity in these territories.
(ii) Independent Kingdoms Mysore, the Rajput states and Kerala fall in this category. These states came into existence primarily due to destabilisation of the Mughal control over the provinces.
(iii) The New States These were the states which were set up by the rebels against the Mughals. The Marathas, the Sikh and the Jat states belong to this category.
CAUSES OF THE DECLINE
CAUSES OF THE DECLINE The Mughal empire reachec its greatest extent in the time of Aurangzeb, but it collapsed with dramatic suddenness within a few decades after his death. Some of the main causes for this downfall were as follows.
(i) The government of the Mughals was a personal despotism and so its success depended on the character 01 the reigning autocrat. The later Mughals were worthless and neglected the administration of the state.
(ii) With the absence of a definite law of succession there always occurred a war of succession; this weakened the stability of the government, and fostered partisanship at the cost of patriotism.
(iii) The degeneration of the rulers led to the degen. eration of the nobility, with factious quarrels and intrigue! costing the empire heavily.
(iv) The deterioration of the army also proved disastrous for the empire.
(v) The empire had become too vast and unwieldy t~ be efficiently governed from a central authority under weal rulers, especially in the medieval conditions of transpod and communication.
(vi) Aurangzeb's religious policy was largely respon sible, causing revolts by Rajputs, Sikhs, Jats and Marathas
(vii) Aurangzeb's Deccan policy was a complete failUl'l and to a major extent caused the downfall of the Mughal empire.
(viii) Invasions of Irani and Durrani kingdoms gave I death-blow to the Mughal empire.
(i) The government of the Mughals was a personal despotism and so its success depended on the character 01 the reigning autocrat. The later Mughals were worthless and neglected the administration of the state.
(ii) With the absence of a definite law of succession there always occurred a war of succession; this weakened the stability of the government, and fostered partisanship at the cost of patriotism.
(iii) The degeneration of the rulers led to the degen. eration of the nobility, with factious quarrels and intrigue! costing the empire heavily.
(iv) The deterioration of the army also proved disastrous for the empire.
(v) The empire had become too vast and unwieldy t~ be efficiently governed from a central authority under weal rulers, especially in the medieval conditions of transpod and communication.
(vi) Aurangzeb's religious policy was largely respon sible, causing revolts by Rajputs, Sikhs, Jats and Marathas
(vii) Aurangzeb's Deccan policy was a complete failUl'l and to a major extent caused the downfall of the Mughal empire.
(viii) Invasions of Irani and Durrani kingdoms gave I death-blow to the Mughal empire.
DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE
DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE
Aurangzeb died in 1707 and a rapid decline of the empire followed. Bahadur Shah (1707-1712) who succeeded Aurangzeb had to face a serious revolt by the Sikhs led by Banda; the Sikhs, persecuted by Aurangzeb, sacked Sirhind. Though Bahadur Shah defeated Banda, the latter escaped from Lohagarh fort. Jahandar Shah (1712-1713) had a shortlived reign, being killed by Farruksiyar who ascended the throne in 1713. He was totally under the Sayyid brothers who have come to be known as 'King Makers'. His reign faced revolts from Rajputs, Jats and Sikhs. He was successful in his campaign against the Sikhs, and executed Banda Bahadur in 1716. Farruksiyar himself was murdered by the Sayyid brothers with Maratha help in 1719. The Sayyid brothers now put Muhammad Shah (1719-1748) on the throne. Ultimately these brothers were murdered by a conspiracy between the emperor and Chin Kilich Khan (Nizam-ul-Mulk). However, Chin Kilich Khan, disgusted by Muhammad Shah's incompetence, retired to the Deccan and made himself independent. Hyderabad, Avadh and Bengal established independent kingdoms.
NADIR SHAH'S INVASION It was in 1738-39 that the Mughal empire received a staggering blow at the hands of Nadir Shah, who had seized the throne of Persia in 1736 and later captured Qandhar from the Afghans. Finding a pretext that the Mughal emperor was giving shelter to Afghan refugees, he marched towards India. In 1739, he defeated the imperial army at Kamal near Panipat.
Muhammad Shah invited Nadir. Shah to the capital fOI negotiating a treaty. But due to al false rumour that Nadil Shah had been killed, the local people killed many Persiar soldiers.
The enraged Nadir Shah ordered a general mas sacre of the local population. Nadir Shah departed fron India with a huge booty which included the world famoUi Peacock throne made by Shah Jahan and the celebratec Koh-i-Noor Aiamond.
AHMAD SHAH ABDALI The weakness of the empin was obvious. The successors of Muhammad Shah were.n( better, and invited further invasions. Ahmad Shah Abdal had decIared himself ruler of Qandhar on Nadir Shah'! assassination in 1747. He invaded India in 1748 whie! proved a fiasco. In 1749 he defeated Muin-ul-Mulk, gOY ernor of Punjab. His third invasion took place in 1752. No\\ he got the submission of the states of Punjab and Sind. H~ invaded India for the fourth time in 1756 during the reigr of Alamgir II. In 1757 he entered Delhi and plundered thl whole region from Agra to Mathura.
In 1758 Raghunath Ra( the Maratha ruler appeared at Delhi at the call of flu Mughal ruler, which again was not liked by Abdali. He onCE again attacked India. At the third battle of Panipat in 1761 the armies of Abdali and the Marathas met and thl Marathas were completely routed. Abdali now nominatec Shah Alam II as emperor.
Bahadur Shah Zafar II (1827-1862) was the last of thE Mughal emperors.
Aurangzeb died in 1707 and a rapid decline of the empire followed. Bahadur Shah (1707-1712) who succeeded Aurangzeb had to face a serious revolt by the Sikhs led by Banda; the Sikhs, persecuted by Aurangzeb, sacked Sirhind. Though Bahadur Shah defeated Banda, the latter escaped from Lohagarh fort. Jahandar Shah (1712-1713) had a shortlived reign, being killed by Farruksiyar who ascended the throne in 1713. He was totally under the Sayyid brothers who have come to be known as 'King Makers'. His reign faced revolts from Rajputs, Jats and Sikhs. He was successful in his campaign against the Sikhs, and executed Banda Bahadur in 1716. Farruksiyar himself was murdered by the Sayyid brothers with Maratha help in 1719. The Sayyid brothers now put Muhammad Shah (1719-1748) on the throne. Ultimately these brothers were murdered by a conspiracy between the emperor and Chin Kilich Khan (Nizam-ul-Mulk). However, Chin Kilich Khan, disgusted by Muhammad Shah's incompetence, retired to the Deccan and made himself independent. Hyderabad, Avadh and Bengal established independent kingdoms.
NADIR SHAH'S INVASION It was in 1738-39 that the Mughal empire received a staggering blow at the hands of Nadir Shah, who had seized the throne of Persia in 1736 and later captured Qandhar from the Afghans. Finding a pretext that the Mughal emperor was giving shelter to Afghan refugees, he marched towards India. In 1739, he defeated the imperial army at Kamal near Panipat.
Muhammad Shah invited Nadir. Shah to the capital fOI negotiating a treaty. But due to al false rumour that Nadil Shah had been killed, the local people killed many Persiar soldiers.
The enraged Nadir Shah ordered a general mas sacre of the local population. Nadir Shah departed fron India with a huge booty which included the world famoUi Peacock throne made by Shah Jahan and the celebratec Koh-i-Noor Aiamond.
AHMAD SHAH ABDALI The weakness of the empin was obvious. The successors of Muhammad Shah were.n( better, and invited further invasions. Ahmad Shah Abdal had decIared himself ruler of Qandhar on Nadir Shah'! assassination in 1747. He invaded India in 1748 whie! proved a fiasco. In 1749 he defeated Muin-ul-Mulk, gOY ernor of Punjab. His third invasion took place in 1752. No\\ he got the submission of the states of Punjab and Sind. H~ invaded India for the fourth time in 1756 during the reigr of Alamgir II. In 1757 he entered Delhi and plundered thl whole region from Agra to Mathura.
In 1758 Raghunath Ra( the Maratha ruler appeared at Delhi at the call of flu Mughal ruler, which again was not liked by Abdali. He onCE again attacked India. At the third battle of Panipat in 1761 the armies of Abdali and the Marathas met and thl Marathas were completely routed. Abdali now nominatec Shah Alam II as emperor.
Bahadur Shah Zafar II (1827-1862) was the last of thE Mughal emperors.
PAINTING & MUSIC
PAINTING
The Mughals were lovers of the art of painting. Humayun is said to have patronised two masterpainters, Abdus Samad and Mir Sayyid AlL They were ordered to paint the famous Dastan-i-Amir Hamzah. Akbar during his reign brought about the synthesis of Indian and Persian styles. Indian themes and landscapes, and colours gained importance. European style was introduced by Portuguese priests in Akbar's court. The most famous of painters were Basawan, Daswanath and Haribans, Abdus Samad and Farruk Beg. Jahangir was a connoisseur of art and a keen collector of historical paintings. Under his influence, Persian influence was eliminated and a new style developed which was purely Indian. Jahangir had a trained eye for the niceties of the art and he claimed that he could identify the hands of several artists in a composite picture. Portrait painting reached a climax in his period. In his time the most famous painters were Aga Raja, Muhammad Nadir and Muhammad Murad, Bishan Das, Manohar and Govardhan.
After his death the art of painting started declining. However, with the artists dispersing to various provincial capitals, development of various other schools of painting took place-the Rajasthani, the Pahari, etc.
Besides the Mughal style there grew up in this age a distinct school of painting in. Rajputana. The Rajput paintings were excellent masterpieces from Hindu mythology, village life and pastimes of the common people. Their pictures are remarkable for their brilliance and decorative effect as well as for their spiritual and emotional impact. Mughal painting had as its themes court scenes, battle scenes and hunting besides portraits.
MUSIC The Mughals appreciated music. Babur is said to have composed songs. Akbar was a lover of music. His court was adorned by famous musicians like Tansen of Gwalior and Baz Bahadur of Malwa. Shah Jahan was fond of vocal and instrumental music. The two great Hindu musicians of his time were Jagannath and Janardhan Bhatta. But Aurangzeb who was a puritan dismissed singing from his court. However, ironically, the largest number of books on classical music were written in his reign.
The Mughals were lovers of the art of painting. Humayun is said to have patronised two masterpainters, Abdus Samad and Mir Sayyid AlL They were ordered to paint the famous Dastan-i-Amir Hamzah. Akbar during his reign brought about the synthesis of Indian and Persian styles. Indian themes and landscapes, and colours gained importance. European style was introduced by Portuguese priests in Akbar's court. The most famous of painters were Basawan, Daswanath and Haribans, Abdus Samad and Farruk Beg. Jahangir was a connoisseur of art and a keen collector of historical paintings. Under his influence, Persian influence was eliminated and a new style developed which was purely Indian. Jahangir had a trained eye for the niceties of the art and he claimed that he could identify the hands of several artists in a composite picture. Portrait painting reached a climax in his period. In his time the most famous painters were Aga Raja, Muhammad Nadir and Muhammad Murad, Bishan Das, Manohar and Govardhan.
After his death the art of painting started declining. However, with the artists dispersing to various provincial capitals, development of various other schools of painting took place-the Rajasthani, the Pahari, etc.
Besides the Mughal style there grew up in this age a distinct school of painting in. Rajputana. The Rajput paintings were excellent masterpieces from Hindu mythology, village life and pastimes of the common people. Their pictures are remarkable for their brilliance and decorative effect as well as for their spiritual and emotional impact. Mughal painting had as its themes court scenes, battle scenes and hunting besides portraits.
MUSIC The Mughals appreciated music. Babur is said to have composed songs. Akbar was a lover of music. His court was adorned by famous musicians like Tansen of Gwalior and Baz Bahadur of Malwa. Shah Jahan was fond of vocal and instrumental music. The two great Hindu musicians of his time were Jagannath and Janardhan Bhatta. But Aurangzeb who was a puritan dismissed singing from his court. However, ironically, the largest number of books on classical music were written in his reign.
LITERATURE
LITERATURE
The Mughal emperors were patrons of literature and they did much to remove the barriers between Hindus and Muslims to promote a happy fusion of t..wtures. In this connection, we may mention the name ot' 'Malik Muhammad Jayasi who in his Padmavat describes the story of Padmini, and Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan whose exquisite dohas are still read and admired all over northern India. It was Akbar's patronage that gave a vigorous stimulus to literary activity. The Persian literature of his reign comprised historical works, translations and poetry. The great historical works of his reign are the Akbarnamah and Ain-i-Akbari of Abul Fazal, the Muntkhab-ul-Twarikh by Badauni and Tabaqat-i-Akbari. by Nizam-ud-din Ahmed. Akbar was a keen student of Hindu culture and so by his orders many Sanskrit works wer~ translated into Persian. Badauni translated Ramayana and Faizi the Lilavati. The Mahabharata was translated and renamed Razm-namah. The translator of the Atharva Veda was Hazi Ibrahim Sarhindi. Other works translated were Rajatarangini and Panchatantra. Among the important poets of the period were Ghizali, Faizi and Muhammad Hussain Naziri. Jahangir also had a fine taste for literature and his memoirs are second only to that of Babur. During Shah Jahan's period many historical works were composed i.e. Padshahnamah by Abdul Hamid Lahori, Shah-Jahan-namah. by Inayat Khan etc. Aurangzeb was a learned man but he disliked history and poetry. His taste was for Muslim theology and jurisprudence of which he was a critical writer. It was under him that the Fatwahi-Alamgiri was written. The most famous history of his reign, the Muntakhab-ul-Lubab of Khafi Khan, was prepared in secrecy.
This period has been described as the "Augustan Age of Hindustani Literature" as Akbar gave impetus to Hindi poetry. Persons like Birbal, Raja Man Singh, etc. were poets of no mean order. Among the most notable poet was Tulsidas who wrote the famous Ramcharitamanas. Surdas, the blind bard of Agra, wrote numerous verses in Brij Bhasa, the most important being Sur Sugar. The two famous poets of Shah Jahan's time were Sundar, the author of Sundar Srinagar, and Bihari Lal, the author of Satsai. In Bengal there developed in this period remarkable literature dealing with the life of Chaitanya Deva.
The Mughals did 'not have any systematic organisation for imparting education. Some sort of elementary education was imparted in maktabs and pathsalas. Further it was mainly confined to the upper sections of society and the clergy. Most Mughal emperors were educated and so were their ladies. Gulbadan Begum was an accomplished lady. She wrote the Humayun namah. Nur Jahan, Mumtaz Mahal, Jahanara Begum and Zeb-un-Nisa were highly educated ladies.
The Mughal emperors were patrons of literature and they did much to remove the barriers between Hindus and Muslims to promote a happy fusion of t..wtures. In this connection, we may mention the name ot' 'Malik Muhammad Jayasi who in his Padmavat describes the story of Padmini, and Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan whose exquisite dohas are still read and admired all over northern India. It was Akbar's patronage that gave a vigorous stimulus to literary activity. The Persian literature of his reign comprised historical works, translations and poetry. The great historical works of his reign are the Akbarnamah and Ain-i-Akbari of Abul Fazal, the Muntkhab-ul-Twarikh by Badauni and Tabaqat-i-Akbari. by Nizam-ud-din Ahmed. Akbar was a keen student of Hindu culture and so by his orders many Sanskrit works wer~ translated into Persian. Badauni translated Ramayana and Faizi the Lilavati. The Mahabharata was translated and renamed Razm-namah. The translator of the Atharva Veda was Hazi Ibrahim Sarhindi. Other works translated were Rajatarangini and Panchatantra. Among the important poets of the period were Ghizali, Faizi and Muhammad Hussain Naziri. Jahangir also had a fine taste for literature and his memoirs are second only to that of Babur. During Shah Jahan's period many historical works were composed i.e. Padshahnamah by Abdul Hamid Lahori, Shah-Jahan-namah. by Inayat Khan etc. Aurangzeb was a learned man but he disliked history and poetry. His taste was for Muslim theology and jurisprudence of which he was a critical writer. It was under him that the Fatwahi-Alamgiri was written. The most famous history of his reign, the Muntakhab-ul-Lubab of Khafi Khan, was prepared in secrecy.
This period has been described as the "Augustan Age of Hindustani Literature" as Akbar gave impetus to Hindi poetry. Persons like Birbal, Raja Man Singh, etc. were poets of no mean order. Among the most notable poet was Tulsidas who wrote the famous Ramcharitamanas. Surdas, the blind bard of Agra, wrote numerous verses in Brij Bhasa, the most important being Sur Sugar. The two famous poets of Shah Jahan's time were Sundar, the author of Sundar Srinagar, and Bihari Lal, the author of Satsai. In Bengal there developed in this period remarkable literature dealing with the life of Chaitanya Deva.
The Mughals did 'not have any systematic organisation for imparting education. Some sort of elementary education was imparted in maktabs and pathsalas. Further it was mainly confined to the upper sections of society and the clergy. Most Mughal emperors were educated and so were their ladies. Gulbadan Begum was an accomplished lady. She wrote the Humayun namah. Nur Jahan, Mumtaz Mahal, Jahanara Begum and Zeb-un-Nisa were highly educated ladies.
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS
The Mughal period saw remarkable cultural developme in which Indian and Islamic traditions were fused into composite style.
ARCHITECTURE The Mughals were prolific builde The buildings of Babur have perished by now except rn one at Kabuli Bagh at Panipat and the other, the Jami Masj at Sambhal. Humayun's troubled reign left him little opportunity to ind~ge in artistic taste. Only one mosque of his time still stands-at Fatehabad in Punjab.
Sher Shah Suri who dispossessed Humayun was a great builder. The most remarkable buildings of his time are the mosque in the Purana Quila near Delhi and his own tomb at Sasaram in Bihar. The new style of architecture tiegun by Sher Shah was greatly developed by Akbar who was the first Mughal emperor who had the time to undertake construction on a large scale. Most of the buildings built during his reign were of red sandstone. One of his earliest buildings was the tomb of Humayun at Delhi, amidst a welliaid-out garden. He adorned his capital, Agra, with magnificent buildings such as the fort, the Diwan-iAm, the DiiiJan-i-Khas and the palace known as Jahangiri Mahal. But his most important buildings are to be found at Fatehpur Sikri, the capital township he founded. The most impressive buildings of Fatehpur Sikri are the tomb of Sheikh Salim Chishti and the Buland Darwaza, the Panch Mahal and Jodha Bai's palace. Akbar combined Persian, Indian and central Asian styles. His mausoleum at Sikandara is a unique building modelled on the Buddhist viharas of India. It was planned by Akbar but built by Jahangir.
Jahangir had fine artistic sense but his taste lay more in painting. The two most important buildings of his reign are the tomb of Akbar and the tomb of ltimad-ud-daulah. The latter was built by Nur Jahan over the grave of her
father. It was built in white marble and is one of the earliest buildings to be decorated with pietra dura or inlaying of semi-precious stones of different colours.
Shah Jahan was a most prolific and magnificent builder. In exquisite beauty of form, in symmetry of design and in skilful decoration Shah Jahan's buildings are unequalled. Of his buildings the most important are the tomb of Jahangir
, at Lahore, the Diwan-i-Am, the Diwan-i-Khas at Red Fort and the Jama Masjid in Delhi. The Moti Masjid in Agra Fort is remarkable for its purity and unadorned beauty. But the finest of Mughal art is the famous Taj Mahal, a noble mausoleum erected by Shah Jahan over the grave of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal. The master-architect under whose guidance the building was designed and completed was Ustad lsa. The construction of this building was completed in 22 years. Pietra dura work, delicate marble screens and chhatris are special artistic features in this monument. With Shah Jahan's death, Mughal art began to decline. His puritanical son Aurangzeb 'cared little for architecture. His only building worth mentioning is the Badshahi Mosque.
The special contribution of the Mughals was the laying out of beautiful gardens. Babur laid the first such garden in Agra-the Nur-i-Afshan. All the Mughal buildings generally incorporate gardens. Jahangir, perhaps, is most famous for his gardens-Shalimar at Srinagar and the garden in Lahore. Asaf Khan, Nur Jahan's brother laid out the famous Nishat Bagh in Srinagar.Scientifically planned, these gardens made a careful selection of plants and had well laid-out waterways and fountains.
The Mughal period saw remarkable cultural developme in which Indian and Islamic traditions were fused into composite style.
ARCHITECTURE The Mughals were prolific builde The buildings of Babur have perished by now except rn one at Kabuli Bagh at Panipat and the other, the Jami Masj at Sambhal. Humayun's troubled reign left him little opportunity to ind~ge in artistic taste. Only one mosque of his time still stands-at Fatehabad in Punjab.
Sher Shah Suri who dispossessed Humayun was a great builder. The most remarkable buildings of his time are the mosque in the Purana Quila near Delhi and his own tomb at Sasaram in Bihar. The new style of architecture tiegun by Sher Shah was greatly developed by Akbar who was the first Mughal emperor who had the time to undertake construction on a large scale. Most of the buildings built during his reign were of red sandstone. One of his earliest buildings was the tomb of Humayun at Delhi, amidst a welliaid-out garden. He adorned his capital, Agra, with magnificent buildings such as the fort, the Diwan-iAm, the DiiiJan-i-Khas and the palace known as Jahangiri Mahal. But his most important buildings are to be found at Fatehpur Sikri, the capital township he founded. The most impressive buildings of Fatehpur Sikri are the tomb of Sheikh Salim Chishti and the Buland Darwaza, the Panch Mahal and Jodha Bai's palace. Akbar combined Persian, Indian and central Asian styles. His mausoleum at Sikandara is a unique building modelled on the Buddhist viharas of India. It was planned by Akbar but built by Jahangir.
Jahangir had fine artistic sense but his taste lay more in painting. The two most important buildings of his reign are the tomb of Akbar and the tomb of ltimad-ud-daulah. The latter was built by Nur Jahan over the grave of her
father. It was built in white marble and is one of the earliest buildings to be decorated with pietra dura or inlaying of semi-precious stones of different colours.
Shah Jahan was a most prolific and magnificent builder. In exquisite beauty of form, in symmetry of design and in skilful decoration Shah Jahan's buildings are unequalled. Of his buildings the most important are the tomb of Jahangir
, at Lahore, the Diwan-i-Am, the Diwan-i-Khas at Red Fort and the Jama Masjid in Delhi. The Moti Masjid in Agra Fort is remarkable for its purity and unadorned beauty. But the finest of Mughal art is the famous Taj Mahal, a noble mausoleum erected by Shah Jahan over the grave of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal. The master-architect under whose guidance the building was designed and completed was Ustad lsa. The construction of this building was completed in 22 years. Pietra dura work, delicate marble screens and chhatris are special artistic features in this monument. With Shah Jahan's death, Mughal art began to decline. His puritanical son Aurangzeb 'cared little for architecture. His only building worth mentioning is the Badshahi Mosque.
The special contribution of the Mughals was the laying out of beautiful gardens. Babur laid the first such garden in Agra-the Nur-i-Afshan. All the Mughal buildings generally incorporate gardens. Jahangir, perhaps, is most famous for his gardens-Shalimar at Srinagar and the garden in Lahore. Asaf Khan, Nur Jahan's brother laid out the famous Nishat Bagh in Srinagar.Scientifically planned, these gardens made a careful selection of plants and had well laid-out waterways and fountains.
SOCIAL CONDITIONS & ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
SOCIAL CONDITIONS
The society in the time of the Mughals was to a large exter
feudal in nature. It was stratified into different grades, , the top of which was the king. Below him were the offici. nobles, the mansabdars. The common people formed soml thing like an unprivileged class and plied their humb] trades and professions. There was a considerable gap i standards of living between the nobility and the commo people.
Among the social customs, the two most prominel were sati and child marriage. Akbar tried to mitigate tl evils but with little success. The purdah system was in vOgl. both among the Hindus and Muslims. The relations b tween the Hindus. and Muslims was much better than was in the Sultanate period.
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
The economic condition of India was good. Trade at commerce flourished and it is common knowledge that t1 nations of Europe vied with one another to have a sha in India's lucrative trade. The Mughal emperors encouragl production through both agriculture and industries. Besid edible crops, the agricultural products included cotto indigo and opium. Tobacco was introduced in about 16C Its consumption increased rapidly, so that Jahangir prohi ited smoking in 1617. In the Mughal age crafts.aJ industries were both private and state-owned. India carri~ on an extensive foreign trade. The principal articles export to Europe and other countries were indigo, opiw saltpetre, pepper, etc. Its imports included horses, Chine procelain and African slaves. The principal ports we Surat, Cambay, Cochin, and Masulipatam.
The society in the time of the Mughals was to a large exter
feudal in nature. It was stratified into different grades, , the top of which was the king. Below him were the offici. nobles, the mansabdars. The common people formed soml thing like an unprivileged class and plied their humb] trades and professions. There was a considerable gap i standards of living between the nobility and the commo people.
Among the social customs, the two most prominel were sati and child marriage. Akbar tried to mitigate tl evils but with little success. The purdah system was in vOgl. both among the Hindus and Muslims. The relations b tween the Hindus. and Muslims was much better than was in the Sultanate period.
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
The economic condition of India was good. Trade at commerce flourished and it is common knowledge that t1 nations of Europe vied with one another to have a sha in India's lucrative trade. The Mughal emperors encouragl production through both agriculture and industries. Besid edible crops, the agricultural products included cotto indigo and opium. Tobacco was introduced in about 16C Its consumption increased rapidly, so that Jahangir prohi ited smoking in 1617. In the Mughal age crafts.aJ industries were both private and state-owned. India carri~ on an extensive foreign trade. The principal articles export to Europe and other countries were indigo, opiw saltpetre, pepper, etc. Its imports included horses, Chine procelain and African slaves. The principal ports we Surat, Cambay, Cochin, and Masulipatam.
Principles of Tawahid-i-Ilahi or Din-i-Ilahi
Principles of Tawahid-i-Ilahi or Din-i-Ilahi Aimed at achieving a synthesis of all religions, Akbar's Din-i-llahi's major principles include:
(i) God is great (Allah-o-Akbar)
(ii) Initiations would be performed on Sunday.
(iii) The novice would place his head at the emperor's feat. The emperor would raise him up and give him the formula (Shast).
(iv) The initiates would abstain from meat as far as possible and give a sumptuous feast and alms on their birthday.
(v) There would be no sacred scriptures, place of worship or rituals (except initiation).
(vi) Every adherent should take oath of doing good to everybody. .
(vii) Followers should show respect to all religions.
Akbar's efforts at social reform are also noteworthy. He riage and raised the age of marriage. He even tried to makl education broad-based and secular.
Jahangir and Shah Jahan pursued the same toleran policy though at times there were aberrations. Aurangze1 was a staunch Sunni but he was intolerant of other faith! He reversed the policy of Akbar, and this partly led to th decline of Mughal power after his death.
(i) God is great (Allah-o-Akbar)
(ii) Initiations would be performed on Sunday.
(iii) The novice would place his head at the emperor's feat. The emperor would raise him up and give him the formula (Shast).
(iv) The initiates would abstain from meat as far as possible and give a sumptuous feast and alms on their birthday.
(v) There would be no sacred scriptures, place of worship or rituals (except initiation).
(vi) Every adherent should take oath of doing good to everybody. .
(vii) Followers should show respect to all religions.
Akbar's efforts at social reform are also noteworthy. He riage and raised the age of marriage. He even tried to makl education broad-based and secular.
Jahangir and Shah Jahan pursued the same toleran policy though at times there were aberrations. Aurangze1 was a staunch Sunni but he was intolerant of other faith! He reversed the policy of Akbar, and this partly led to th decline of Mughal power after his death.
RELIGIOUS POLICY
RELIGIOUS POLICY
The religious policy of the Mughal emperors was, on the whole, a tolerant one. Though staunch Sunnis personally, Babur and Humayun were tolerant. Akbar's policy was positively motivated towards achieving the cultural unity of India. Akbar's was a liberal and enlightened policy. He abolished pilgrim tax and jaziya in 1563 and 1564 respectively.
Akbar's religious views undKrwent a process of evolution. Though brought up as an orthodox Sunni Muslim he was greatly influenced by the mysticism of the Sufi doctrines, especially when he came in contact with the two brilliant brothers, Faizi and Abdul Fazal, who were Sufis. He invited learned professors of various religions to his Ibadat KJuzna, the hall of worship he built at Fatehpur Sikri
in 1575. Here he gave impartial hearing to all religious experts-Hindu, Muslim, Jain, Christian and Zoroastrian.
He was against rigid orthodoxy and narrow sectarianism of the Sunnis, who were bitterly opposed to his tolerant policy. Hence at the suggestion of Shaikh Mubarak, father of Abdul Fazal and Faizi, Akbar assumed the role of the spiritual leader of Islam. In 1579, he issued the so-called Infallibility Decree (Mahzar) in this regard. This decree made him the 'Pope as well as king', by which he appropriated to himself the right to choose any interpretation of the Quran in the interest of public good. This ended the dominance of bigots. In 1582, he promulgated Din-i-Ilahi, a new religion. The underlying principle .was Suleh-i-Kul (universal toleration). There was belief in unity of God, with the mingling of some Hindu, Jain and Persian doctrines. The new system was called Tawahid-i-Ilahi or Divine Monotheism. Among the principle members there was only one Hindu, Raja Birbal. Din-i-Ilahi did not swvive after Akbar's death.
The religious policy of the Mughal emperors was, on the whole, a tolerant one. Though staunch Sunnis personally, Babur and Humayun were tolerant. Akbar's policy was positively motivated towards achieving the cultural unity of India. Akbar's was a liberal and enlightened policy. He abolished pilgrim tax and jaziya in 1563 and 1564 respectively.
Akbar's religious views undKrwent a process of evolution. Though brought up as an orthodox Sunni Muslim he was greatly influenced by the mysticism of the Sufi doctrines, especially when he came in contact with the two brilliant brothers, Faizi and Abdul Fazal, who were Sufis. He invited learned professors of various religions to his Ibadat KJuzna, the hall of worship he built at Fatehpur Sikri
in 1575. Here he gave impartial hearing to all religious experts-Hindu, Muslim, Jain, Christian and Zoroastrian.
He was against rigid orthodoxy and narrow sectarianism of the Sunnis, who were bitterly opposed to his tolerant policy. Hence at the suggestion of Shaikh Mubarak, father of Abdul Fazal and Faizi, Akbar assumed the role of the spiritual leader of Islam. In 1579, he issued the so-called Infallibility Decree (Mahzar) in this regard. This decree made him the 'Pope as well as king', by which he appropriated to himself the right to choose any interpretation of the Quran in the interest of public good. This ended the dominance of bigots. In 1582, he promulgated Din-i-Ilahi, a new religion. The underlying principle .was Suleh-i-Kul (universal toleration). There was belief in unity of God, with the mingling of some Hindu, Jain and Persian doctrines. The new system was called Tawahid-i-Ilahi or Divine Monotheism. Among the principle members there was only one Hindu, Raja Birbal. Din-i-Ilahi did not swvive after Akbar's death.
DECCAN POLICY
DECCAN POLICY
Babur and Humayun had no time to think of the Deccan. Akbar was the first Mughal ruler who turned his attention towards the Deccan. He wanted to expand his empire and also limit the growing power of the Portuguese. Thus the motive behind his policy was political. The motive of Jahangir and Shah Jahan also remained the same. However, Aurangzeb added religious motive as well to it. He desired to destroy not only the newly risen power of the Marathas but also the Shia states of Bijapur and Golconda. Besides, the Mughal emperors, till the reign of Shah Jahan, remained satisfied with forcing the sates of the south to accept their suzerainty and did not insist on annexing them. Aurangzeb, however, attempted to annex them to the Mughal empire. Though he succeeded in his designs, his success was short-lived. Very soon the Deccan was to become his graveyard. His period thus witnessed not only the successful completion of the Deccan policy but also its failure, for the economy suffered and the centralised administration could not control such a vast area effectively.
Babur and Humayun had no time to think of the Deccan. Akbar was the first Mughal ruler who turned his attention towards the Deccan. He wanted to expand his empire and also limit the growing power of the Portuguese. Thus the motive behind his policy was political. The motive of Jahangir and Shah Jahan also remained the same. However, Aurangzeb added religious motive as well to it. He desired to destroy not only the newly risen power of the Marathas but also the Shia states of Bijapur and Golconda. Besides, the Mughal emperors, till the reign of Shah Jahan, remained satisfied with forcing the sates of the south to accept their suzerainty and did not insist on annexing them. Aurangzeb, however, attempted to annex them to the Mughal empire. Though he succeeded in his designs, his success was short-lived. Very soon the Deccan was to become his graveyard. His period thus witnessed not only the successful completion of the Deccan policy but also its failure, for the economy suffered and the centralised administration could not control such a vast area effectively.
RAJPUT POLICY
RAJPUT POLICY Babur and Humayun had strained relations with the Rajputs. It was only Akbar who rightly perceived that the Rajputs were a very brave and courageous people who could not be easily crushed by warfare. He therefore set himself to the task of winning over the Rajputs. He entered into a scheme of matri'monial alliances with the Rajputs. He started giving high positions to the Rajputs in Mughal service and treated them on par with the Mughal nobility. He granted freedom of worship and conscience to the Rajputs. Those who allied themselves to Akbar were largely left in charge of their kingdoms. Where conciliation failed he resorted to warfare. His policy of 'carrot and stick' won over the Rajputs and they became a part and parcel of the Mughal empire.
Jahangir continued the Rajput policy of his father. In the reign of Shah Jahan also the Rajputs continued to serve the empire though they did not have the prominent position which they enjoyed at the time I of Akbar. Aurangzeb negated the earlier policy and thereby undid the work of Akbar. He turned valuable friends into dangerous foes.
Jahangir continued the Rajput policy of his father. In the reign of Shah Jahan also the Rajputs continued to serve the empire though they did not have the prominent position which they enjoyed at the time I of Akbar. Aurangzeb negated the earlier policy and thereby undid the work of Akbar. He turned valuable friends into dangerous foes.
REVENUE
REVENUE The Mughals effected considerable improvement in the system of revenue administration. Akbar revived the system followed by Sher Shah and also introduced a number of reforms in it. He appointed Todar Mal as his finance minister (diwan-i-ashraf) in 1582. With this, a new era of economic reforms began. Until then, the practice had been to fix the assessment every year on the basis of the yield of the soil and current prices. The state's demand thus varied from year to year, causing great inconvenience especially when the empire increased in size. To obviate this difficulty Todar Mal set up a regulation or standard system known as the zabti system.
According to it, lands were accurately surveyed and for this purpose a stiff pole was substituted for the loose rope whose length fluctuated with the change of seasons. Lands were classified into four classes: (i) polaj or land which was not allowed to remain fallow and was annually cultivated; (ii) parauti or land occasionally left fallow to let it recuperate its productive strength; (iii) chachar or land left fallow for three or four years; (iv) banjar or land remaining uncultivated for five years or more. The first two classes were subdivided into three grades according to their fertility, and the average produce was calculated from the mean of the three grades.
The demand of the state was fixed at one-third of the average produce. The cash rates varied according to crops and were fixed on the average of ten years' actuals, that is, from the past experience of ten years (dahsala). The settlement under this system was made directly with the cultivator. It was applied to northern India. Gujarat and parts of the Deccan.
Besides the zabti, there were two other systems, namely, the ghallabaksh based upon the sharing of crop and the nasaq or arbitrary group assessment somewhat resembling the zamindari settlement. The former prevailed in Sind, Kabul and Kashmir and the latter in Bengal.
According to it, lands were accurately surveyed and for this purpose a stiff pole was substituted for the loose rope whose length fluctuated with the change of seasons. Lands were classified into four classes: (i) polaj or land which was not allowed to remain fallow and was annually cultivated; (ii) parauti or land occasionally left fallow to let it recuperate its productive strength; (iii) chachar or land left fallow for three or four years; (iv) banjar or land remaining uncultivated for five years or more. The first two classes were subdivided into three grades according to their fertility, and the average produce was calculated from the mean of the three grades.
The demand of the state was fixed at one-third of the average produce. The cash rates varied according to crops and were fixed on the average of ten years' actuals, that is, from the past experience of ten years (dahsala). The settlement under this system was made directly with the cultivator. It was applied to northern India. Gujarat and parts of the Deccan.
Besides the zabti, there were two other systems, namely, the ghallabaksh based upon the sharing of crop and the nasaq or arbitrary group assessment somewhat resembling the zamindari settlement. The former prevailed in Sind, Kabul and Kashmir and the latter in Bengal.
Changes in Akbar's Mansabdari System
Changes in Akbar's Mansabdari System Jahangir and Shah Jahan introduced new systems into the original mansabdari system of Akbar. While the system introduced by Jahangir was called du-aspah sih-aspah, the one brought out by Shah Jahan was the month-ratio or month-scale system.
(i) Du-aspah sih-aspah system The term du-aspah sihaspah literally means trooper with two or three horses. Under this system, selected nobles could be allowed to maintain a large quota of soldiers, without making any change in their Jat rank. It implied that a mansabdar or noble holding du-aspah sih-aspah rank had to maintain double the quota of troopers indicated by his sawar rank. They were paid accordingly.
(ii) Month-ratio or Month-scale system It was a new scaling device under which the salaries of mansabdars were put on a month scale: ten months, eight months, six months or even less. The obligations of the mansabdars for maintaining a quota of sawars were brought down accordingly. The month-scale system was applied to both jagirs and those who were paid in cash.
The mansabsari system was not without defects. As the soldiers were recruited and paid by the mansabdars, their loyalty and attachment were to their immediate master rather than to the emperor. This gap between the emperor and the bulk of his army was a source of serious danger to the government.
(i) Du-aspah sih-aspah system The term du-aspah sihaspah literally means trooper with two or three horses. Under this system, selected nobles could be allowed to maintain a large quota of soldiers, without making any change in their Jat rank. It implied that a mansabdar or noble holding du-aspah sih-aspah rank had to maintain double the quota of troopers indicated by his sawar rank. They were paid accordingly.
(ii) Month-ratio or Month-scale system It was a new scaling device under which the salaries of mansabdars were put on a month scale: ten months, eight months, six months or even less. The obligations of the mansabdars for maintaining a quota of sawars were brought down accordingly. The month-scale system was applied to both jagirs and those who were paid in cash.
The mansabsari system was not without defects. As the soldiers were recruited and paid by the mansabdars, their loyalty and attachment were to their immediate master rather than to the emperor. This gap between the emperor and the bulk of his army was a source of serious danger to the government.
Saturday, November 28, 2009
MANSABDARI SYSTEM
MANSABDARI SYSTEM The Mughal emperors maintained a large and efficient army till the reign of Aurangzeb. The credit of organising the Mughal nobility and army systematically goes to Akbar. The steel-frame of Akbar's military policy was the mansabdari system. Through it he set up a bureaucracy which was half-civil and half-military in character. The term mansab means an office or rank in the imperial service, and the mansabdar was an official who, out of his pay, was expected to furnish a certain number of cavalry to the imperial army. They were graded into 39 classes ranging from commanders of 10 to 10,000. During the later years of his reign, Akbar introduced the ranks of zat and sawar in the mansabdari system. According to most historians zat indicated the status and salary out of which besides personal expenses, the mansabdar had to maintain a fixed quota of horses, elephants, carts, etc. Sawar stood for the number of horsemen under him. No one could have a higher quota of sawars than his zat status. Depending on the relation between the zat and sawar, there were three categories in every mansab. The mansab was not hereditary. There were also the stipulations that for every ten cavlarymen, twenty horses had to be maintained and that the contingents of the nobles should be drawn from various groups-Rajput, Pathan, etc. The mansabdars had jagirs assigned to them in lieu of cash payment.
ADMINISTRATION OF THE PARGANA
ADMINISTRATION OF THE PARGANA (subdivision) Following officers were appointed at the pargana level.
(i) Shiqdar Shiqdar was responsible for maintaining law and order at the pargana level and informing the state government about the same. He helped the amil in revenue collection. He was also entitled to punish criminals.
(ii) Ami! Also known as munsif, amil determined revenue at the pargana level. He established direct contact with the peasants for collecting revenue.
(iii) Kanungo He was responsible for surveying land
in pargana.
(iv) Qazi Qazis were appointed at the pargana level to perform judictal function. They were under the provincial qazi.
ADMINISTRATION OF THE VILLAGE Each village had a pradhan, who was also known as muqqudam, khat, choudhury, etc. The pradhan was assisted by a patwari. His main works included maintaining law and order at the village level and assisting amalgujars in collection of revenue from the peasants.
JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION The Mughal judicial system was based on the principle of the Arab jurisprudence. Defending upon their nature, the cases were heard at different levels. The qazi-ul-quzat, the chief judicial officer, was assisted by mufti, who would be a scholar of the Arab jurisprudence. In the Mughalperiod, judicial cases were classified into the following four categories: (i) religious cases, (ii) diwani cases, (iii) fauzdari, and (iv) goods-related cases. Religious cases were dealt with by the office of the qazi and were related with the interpretation of Shariat.
Diwani cases were also heard by the qazi. Criminal cases were dealt with by the subahdar, fauzdar and shiqdar. These officials had their own courts. Cases related to goods were heard in the courts of ami!. It is clear that the qazi heard only diwani and religious cases.
(i) Shiqdar Shiqdar was responsible for maintaining law and order at the pargana level and informing the state government about the same. He helped the amil in revenue collection. He was also entitled to punish criminals.
(ii) Ami! Also known as munsif, amil determined revenue at the pargana level. He established direct contact with the peasants for collecting revenue.
(iii) Kanungo He was responsible for surveying land
in pargana.
(iv) Qazi Qazis were appointed at the pargana level to perform judictal function. They were under the provincial qazi.
ADMINISTRATION OF THE VILLAGE Each village had a pradhan, who was also known as muqqudam, khat, choudhury, etc. The pradhan was assisted by a patwari. His main works included maintaining law and order at the village level and assisting amalgujars in collection of revenue from the peasants.
JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION The Mughal judicial system was based on the principle of the Arab jurisprudence. Defending upon their nature, the cases were heard at different levels. The qazi-ul-quzat, the chief judicial officer, was assisted by mufti, who would be a scholar of the Arab jurisprudence. In the Mughalperiod, judicial cases were classified into the following four categories: (i) religious cases, (ii) diwani cases, (iii) fauzdari, and (iv) goods-related cases. Religious cases were dealt with by the office of the qazi and were related with the interpretation of Shariat.
Diwani cases were also heard by the qazi. Criminal cases were dealt with by the subahdar, fauzdar and shiqdar. These officials had their own courts. Cases related to goods were heard in the courts of ami!. It is clear that the qazi heard only diwani and religious cases.
ADMINISTRATION OF THE SARKARS
ADMINISTRATION OF THE SARKARS The Mughal sarkars were equivalent to modern-day districts. Many officials were appointed at this level of administration. Important among them were the following.
(i) Fauzdar He was responsible for maintaining law
and order.
(ii) Amalgujar Amalgujars were appointed for collecting
revenue and looking after other financial matters.
(iii) Kotwal Appointed by the king on the recommendation of the Mir-Atish, his main function was to punish the criminals. He also informed the centre about all the happenings within a sarkar.
(i) Fauzdar He was responsible for maintaining law
and order.
(ii) Amalgujar Amalgujars were appointed for collecting
revenue and looking after other financial matters.
(iii) Kotwal Appointed by the king on the recommendation of the Mir-Atish, his main function was to punish the criminals. He also informed the centre about all the happenings within a sarkar.
PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION
PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION The administrative agency in the provinces (subah) was an exact miniature of that of the central government. The number of provinces varied from time to time. It was 12 during Akbar's time and 21 during Aurangazeb's. The provincial administration developed by Akbar was based on the principles of 'uniformity' and 'check and balance'. Rights and duties of the provincial officials were distributed in a way which prevented the misuse of offices and promoted interdependence among various officials.
The officials appointed at the provincial level were as follows.
(i) Subahdar or nizam He was the head of the provincial administration. He was also known as prantapati or sipahsalara or sahib-i-suba. Appointed by the king, subahdar maintained law and order and security of the people and property throughout his province. His other responsibilities included implementation of royal orders and collection of taxes from landlords and subordinate rulers.
(ii) Diwan-i-suba Appointed by the king on' the recommendation of diwan-i-ala, he was responsible for revenue collection in his province. Though he was under the subahdar for the administrative purposes, diwan-i-ala had a direct control over him.
(iii) Provincial bakshi Appointed by the king on the recommendation of the central mir bakshi, his responsibilities included maintenance of mansabdars and fixing of recruitment pay of soldiers. He sent reports to the king from time to time about the working of the mansabdars. As a wakiya nigara, he sent reports to the king on the incidents of the province.
(iv) Sadr At the provincial level, sadr also worked as qazi. Appointed by the king on the recommendation of sadrus-sadr, he, as a sadr, watched the religious activities of Muslims. As a qazi, he performed judicial functions.
Besides these officials, kotwal, wakiya navis, muhtasib, mir1ahr, etc. were appointed at the provincial level.
The officials appointed at the provincial level were as follows.
(i) Subahdar or nizam He was the head of the provincial administration. He was also known as prantapati or sipahsalara or sahib-i-suba. Appointed by the king, subahdar maintained law and order and security of the people and property throughout his province. His other responsibilities included implementation of royal orders and collection of taxes from landlords and subordinate rulers.
(ii) Diwan-i-suba Appointed by the king on' the recommendation of diwan-i-ala, he was responsible for revenue collection in his province. Though he was under the subahdar for the administrative purposes, diwan-i-ala had a direct control over him.
(iii) Provincial bakshi Appointed by the king on the recommendation of the central mir bakshi, his responsibilities included maintenance of mansabdars and fixing of recruitment pay of soldiers. He sent reports to the king from time to time about the working of the mansabdars. As a wakiya nigara, he sent reports to the king on the incidents of the province.
(iv) Sadr At the provincial level, sadr also worked as qazi. Appointed by the king on the recommendation of sadrus-sadr, he, as a sadr, watched the religious activities of Muslims. As a qazi, he performed judicial functions.
Besides these officials, kotwal, wakiya navis, muhtasib, mir1ahr, etc. were appointed at the provincial level.
CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
The Wazir was the prime minister. All matters concerning revenue were settled by the Diwan. He had two assistants known as diwan-i-am or diwan of salaries and the diwan-i-khas (or Khalisa) or diwan of crown-lands. The mir bakshi was the paymaster. He was entrusted with the task of recruiting the army and maintaining the troops in good order. The khan-i-saman was the lord high steward and was thus in charge of the emperor's department of manufactures, stores and supply. The sadrus-sudur, also known as sadr-i-kul and sadr-i-jahan, was the link between the king and the people. He acted as the guardian of Islamic law and the spokesman of the ulema. The muhtasib was the censor of public morals. Sometimes, he was asked to fix the prices of the goods and enforce the use of correct weights and measures. The qazi-ul-quzat was the chief qazi, that is, the highest judicial officer. The qazis were helped by the muftis. The title of diwan-i-buyutat was given to the officer who r~gistered the wealth and property of the deceased. He also fixed the price of articles, and made provision for the royal karkhanas.
The Wazir was the prime minister. All matters concerning revenue were settled by the Diwan. He had two assistants known as diwan-i-am or diwan of salaries and the diwan-i-khas (or Khalisa) or diwan of crown-lands. The mir bakshi was the paymaster. He was entrusted with the task of recruiting the army and maintaining the troops in good order. The khan-i-saman was the lord high steward and was thus in charge of the emperor's department of manufactures, stores and supply. The sadrus-sudur, also known as sadr-i-kul and sadr-i-jahan, was the link between the king and the people. He acted as the guardian of Islamic law and the spokesman of the ulema. The muhtasib was the censor of public morals. Sometimes, he was asked to fix the prices of the goods and enforce the use of correct weights and measures. The qazi-ul-quzat was the chief qazi, that is, the highest judicial officer. The qazis were helped by the muftis. The title of diwan-i-buyutat was given to the officer who r~gistered the wealth and property of the deceased. He also fixed the price of articles, and made provision for the royal karkhanas.
ADMINISTRATION UNDER THE MUGHALS
ADMINISTRATION UNDER THE MUGHALS
The Mughal administrative system was in the nature of a military rule and was necessarily a centralised despotism. It was the Perso-Arabic system in Indian setting. The Mughal government was called a Kaghzi Raj or paper government, as a large number of books had to be maintained. The emperor was the fountain of all honours, source of all administrative power and the dispenser of supreme justice, implying that the Mughal emperors did not regard the Khalifa as their formal overlord. But they were not despots as they kept the interest of the people uppermost in their mind.
The Mughal nobility was a heterogeneous body, composed of diverse elements like Turks; Tartars, Persians, and Indians and therefore it could not organise itself as a powerful baronial class. It was further not hereditary but purely official in character.
The entire kingdom was divided into suba or pranta, suba into sarkar, Sarkar into pargana and the pargana into villages.
The Mughal administrative system was in the nature of a military rule and was necessarily a centralised despotism. It was the Perso-Arabic system in Indian setting. The Mughal government was called a Kaghzi Raj or paper government, as a large number of books had to be maintained. The emperor was the fountain of all honours, source of all administrative power and the dispenser of supreme justice, implying that the Mughal emperors did not regard the Khalifa as their formal overlord. But they were not despots as they kept the interest of the people uppermost in their mind.
The Mughal nobility was a heterogeneous body, composed of diverse elements like Turks; Tartars, Persians, and Indians and therefore it could not organise itself as a powerful baronial class. It was further not hereditary but purely official in character.
The entire kingdom was divided into suba or pranta, suba into sarkar, Sarkar into pargana and the pargana into villages.
AURANGZEB (AD 1658-1707)
AURANGZEB (AD 1658-1707)
Aurangzeb ascended the throne with the title of Alamgir (Conqueror of the World). His reign can be divided into two equal periods of about 25 years: (i) from 1658-1681 during which time he concentrated on North India, and (it) from 1682-1707 when he went over to the Deccan. In 1661, Assam was captured by the Mughal governor of Bengal, Mir Jumla. After Mir Jurnla's death Aurangzeb appointed Shaista Khan as governor of Bengal. Shaista Khan fought against Arakanese pirates. He captured the island of Sandip in the Bay of Bengal. During Aurangzeb's reign, the Marathas had become very powerful under Shivaji. Aurangzeb sent Shaista Khan against him but Shivaji defeated Shaista Khan.
This made Aurangzeb invite Shivaji to Agra. The meeting was not a happy one as Shivaji was taken prisoner. But Shivaji made good his escape, and won many forts back
from the Mughals. The Jats also rebelled against Aurangzeb in 1669 under the leadership of Gokul Jat. The Satnamis also revolted but were crushed by Aurangzeb in the end. Aurangzeb also had to deal with the Sikhs and had Guru Teg Bahadur put to death. This made his son Guru Govind Singh fight the Mughals till he died in 1708. Aurangzeb's religious policy made many enemies and the Rajputs were no exception. The Rajputs revolted against him which proved very harmful for him.
Aurangzeb set out for the Deccan in 1682 and spent 26 years of his life there. From Ahmadnagar, he conquered Bijapur in 1686 and besieged Golconda in 1687 and annexed it. But the Marathas never allowed Aurangzeb to rest in peace. He was not able to crush the Marathas. He died in 1707 AD and was buried near Daulatabad near the grave of Shaikh Jail-ul-Haq. Thus ended the life of Aurangzeb whom J.N. Sarkar described the "greatest of the Great Mughals save one". During his reign, the M~ghal empire reached its territorial climax, stretching from Kashmir in the north to Jinji in the south, from the Hindukush in the west to Chittagong in the east.
Aurangzeb ascended the throne with the title of Alamgir (Conqueror of the World). His reign can be divided into two equal periods of about 25 years: (i) from 1658-1681 during which time he concentrated on North India, and (it) from 1682-1707 when he went over to the Deccan. In 1661, Assam was captured by the Mughal governor of Bengal, Mir Jumla. After Mir Jurnla's death Aurangzeb appointed Shaista Khan as governor of Bengal. Shaista Khan fought against Arakanese pirates. He captured the island of Sandip in the Bay of Bengal. During Aurangzeb's reign, the Marathas had become very powerful under Shivaji. Aurangzeb sent Shaista Khan against him but Shivaji defeated Shaista Khan.
This made Aurangzeb invite Shivaji to Agra. The meeting was not a happy one as Shivaji was taken prisoner. But Shivaji made good his escape, and won many forts back
from the Mughals. The Jats also rebelled against Aurangzeb in 1669 under the leadership of Gokul Jat. The Satnamis also revolted but were crushed by Aurangzeb in the end. Aurangzeb also had to deal with the Sikhs and had Guru Teg Bahadur put to death. This made his son Guru Govind Singh fight the Mughals till he died in 1708. Aurangzeb's religious policy made many enemies and the Rajputs were no exception. The Rajputs revolted against him which proved very harmful for him.
Aurangzeb set out for the Deccan in 1682 and spent 26 years of his life there. From Ahmadnagar, he conquered Bijapur in 1686 and besieged Golconda in 1687 and annexed it. But the Marathas never allowed Aurangzeb to rest in peace. He was not able to crush the Marathas. He died in 1707 AD and was buried near Daulatabad near the grave of Shaikh Jail-ul-Haq. Thus ended the life of Aurangzeb whom J.N. Sarkar described the "greatest of the Great Mughals save one". During his reign, the M~ghal empire reached its territorial climax, stretching from Kashmir in the north to Jinji in the south, from the Hindukush in the west to Chittagong in the east.
SHAH JAHAN (AD 1628-1658)
SHAH JAHAN (AD 1628-1658)
On the death of Jahangir a struggle ensued for succession between his surviving sons, Shah Jahan and his younger brother Shahryar. The latter was supported by Nur Jahan and the former by Asaf Jah. Asaf Jah on Jahangir's death sent a message to Shah Jahan who was in the Deccan to proceed towards Lahore and, in the meantime, proclaimed Dawar Baksh, the son of Khusrau, as a stop-gap sovereign. Shah Jahan on reachin Lahore put Shahryar to death. Dawar Baksh was permi ted to go to Persia. Shah Jahan thus ascended the throne in 1628.
In the first years of 's reign, Shah Jahan had to overcome the revolts of the B dela chief, Jujhar Singh, and the Afghan noble named Kh Jahan Lodi, an ex-viceroy of the Deccan. Shah Jahan's pol~y of annexing the Deccan was quite successful. Ahmadna~ar was annexed to the empire in 1633. He forced the kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda to accept his overlordship. This brought twenty years of peace to the Deccan, till war broke out again in 1656.j)hah Jahan also expelled the Portuguese from Hughli, , asJhey were abusing their trading privileges and indulging in piracy and slave-trade. Kamarup was also annexed.
Shah Jahan, wanting to conquer Bada-Khashan and Balkh, sent his forces there in 1646 but the campaign proved a failure. He had recovered Kandahar in 1638 only to lose it in 1649. But his three expeditions to regain it were without success. Thus Kandahar was forever lost to the Mughal empire.
In 1657, Shah Jahan fell seriously ill. In the absence of a well-defined law of succession, a terrible civil war broke out among his four sons. Shah Jahan favoured the succession of his eldest son, the liberal-minded Dara Shikoh. Aurangzeb, the third son, opposed Shah Jahan. Arriving at Delhi, after imprisoning his father at Agra, he crowned himself king in July 1658. He had defeated Murad and Shuja at Dharmat and Dara Shikoh at Samugarh. Dara fled, only to be killed after the battle of Deoria in 1659. Shah Jahan spent eight years in confinement in the Agra fort, looked after by his daughter, Jahan Ara, till his death in 1666.
On the death of Jahangir a struggle ensued for succession between his surviving sons, Shah Jahan and his younger brother Shahryar. The latter was supported by Nur Jahan and the former by Asaf Jah. Asaf Jah on Jahangir's death sent a message to Shah Jahan who was in the Deccan to proceed towards Lahore and, in the meantime, proclaimed Dawar Baksh, the son of Khusrau, as a stop-gap sovereign. Shah Jahan on reachin Lahore put Shahryar to death. Dawar Baksh was permi ted to go to Persia. Shah Jahan thus ascended the throne in 1628.
In the first years of 's reign, Shah Jahan had to overcome the revolts of the B dela chief, Jujhar Singh, and the Afghan noble named Kh Jahan Lodi, an ex-viceroy of the Deccan. Shah Jahan's pol~y of annexing the Deccan was quite successful. Ahmadna~ar was annexed to the empire in 1633. He forced the kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda to accept his overlordship. This brought twenty years of peace to the Deccan, till war broke out again in 1656.j)hah Jahan also expelled the Portuguese from Hughli, , asJhey were abusing their trading privileges and indulging in piracy and slave-trade. Kamarup was also annexed.
Shah Jahan, wanting to conquer Bada-Khashan and Balkh, sent his forces there in 1646 but the campaign proved a failure. He had recovered Kandahar in 1638 only to lose it in 1649. But his three expeditions to regain it were without success. Thus Kandahar was forever lost to the Mughal empire.
In 1657, Shah Jahan fell seriously ill. In the absence of a well-defined law of succession, a terrible civil war broke out among his four sons. Shah Jahan favoured the succession of his eldest son, the liberal-minded Dara Shikoh. Aurangzeb, the third son, opposed Shah Jahan. Arriving at Delhi, after imprisoning his father at Agra, he crowned himself king in July 1658. He had defeated Murad and Shuja at Dharmat and Dara Shikoh at Samugarh. Dara fled, only to be killed after the battle of Deoria in 1659. Shah Jahan spent eight years in confinement in the Agra fort, looked after by his daughter, Jahan Ara, till his death in 1666.
JAHANGIR (AD 1605-1627)
JAHANGIR (AD 1605-1627)
Akbar's eldest and only surviving son, Salim, became king under the title of Nur-ud-din Mohammad Jahangir after the death of Akbar. He mostly lived in Lahore which he adorned with gardens and buildings. A few mont.hs after his accession, his eldest son Khusrau revolted against him. He left Agra and laid siege of Lahore. Jahangir personally went against him and defeated the rebellious prince. Though Khusrau was dealt with leniently, his supporters were severely punished. The Sikh Guru Arjun Dev who had given shelter to the prince was tortured and put to death. Khusrau died in 1621-22 at the instance of Prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan).
In 1611, Jahangir married Mehr-un-Nisa who was later known as 'Nur Jahan'. She was the daughter of Mirza Ghiyas Beg. Nur Jahan was an accomplished lady. She is said to have been the real power behind" the throne. She conferred high titles on her relatives, and her father was given the title of 'Itmad-ud-daula'.
Jahangir's first political success was against the Mewar Rana, Amar Singh (1615). In 1620, Prince Khurram conquered Kangta. Jahangir followed the policy of his father with regard to' the Deccan. Ahmadnagar which had been partly conquered by Akbar declared its independence in 1611 under 'Malik Ambar. Jahangir sent his son Khurram against him. In 1617, Ahmadnagar fell and Khurram was rewarded with the title 'Shah Jahan'. But the Mughals could not establish their rule. Malik Ambar retracted from the treaty and, in his later attacks on Bijapur, Shah Jahan joined him, as he was in revolt against his father. In 1622, the Mughals lost Kandahar to the Iranian king, Shah Abbas. Nur Jahan's preference for Prince Shahryar to succeed Jahangir forced Shah Jahan to revolt against his father. Shah Jahan was defeated by Mahabat Khan at Bilochpur in 1623, but he escaped to Mandu. In 1625, a reconciliation took place between father and son. Jahangir died in 1627 and was buried at LahOfe. From his memoirs, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, we come to know that he was a mixture of opposites-a 'strange compound of cruelty and tenderness, of brutality and refinement, of justice and caprice. He was, like his father, li~eral in his religious outlook.
Akbar's eldest and only surviving son, Salim, became king under the title of Nur-ud-din Mohammad Jahangir after the death of Akbar. He mostly lived in Lahore which he adorned with gardens and buildings. A few mont.hs after his accession, his eldest son Khusrau revolted against him. He left Agra and laid siege of Lahore. Jahangir personally went against him and defeated the rebellious prince. Though Khusrau was dealt with leniently, his supporters were severely punished. The Sikh Guru Arjun Dev who had given shelter to the prince was tortured and put to death. Khusrau died in 1621-22 at the instance of Prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan).
In 1611, Jahangir married Mehr-un-Nisa who was later known as 'Nur Jahan'. She was the daughter of Mirza Ghiyas Beg. Nur Jahan was an accomplished lady. She is said to have been the real power behind" the throne. She conferred high titles on her relatives, and her father was given the title of 'Itmad-ud-daula'.
Jahangir's first political success was against the Mewar Rana, Amar Singh (1615). In 1620, Prince Khurram conquered Kangta. Jahangir followed the policy of his father with regard to' the Deccan. Ahmadnagar which had been partly conquered by Akbar declared its independence in 1611 under 'Malik Ambar. Jahangir sent his son Khurram against him. In 1617, Ahmadnagar fell and Khurram was rewarded with the title 'Shah Jahan'. But the Mughals could not establish their rule. Malik Ambar retracted from the treaty and, in his later attacks on Bijapur, Shah Jahan joined him, as he was in revolt against his father. In 1622, the Mughals lost Kandahar to the Iranian king, Shah Abbas. Nur Jahan's preference for Prince Shahryar to succeed Jahangir forced Shah Jahan to revolt against his father. Shah Jahan was defeated by Mahabat Khan at Bilochpur in 1623, but he escaped to Mandu. In 1625, a reconciliation took place between father and son. Jahangir died in 1627 and was buried at LahOfe. From his memoirs, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, we come to know that he was a mixture of opposites-a 'strange compound of cruelty and tenderness, of brutality and refinement, of justice and caprice. He was, like his father, li~eral in his religious outlook.
POLITICAL EXPANSION
POLITICAL EXPANSION Akbar, who was now growing into manhood, publicly announced in 1560 his intention of taking the reins of the government into his own hands. He dismissed Bairam Khan from office and ordered him to take a pilgrimage to Mecca. This made Bairam Khan revolt against Akbar but the revolt failed. Akbar pardoned him and sent him to Mecca. Bairam Khan reached Patan in Gujarat where he was stabbed to death by an Afghan whose father had been executed by his order. The initial phase (AD 1558-1560) of conquest began during Bairam Khan's regency. Gwalior, Ajmer and Jaunpur were occupied.
After overcoming Malwa, then ruled by Baz Bahadur, in 1561, Akbar took up arms against Garh Katanga, a kingdom in Gondwana, ruled by the heroic Rani Durgavati
as the regent of her minor son, Bir Narayan. The Rani was defeated by the army of Asaf Khan, after a strong resistance. She committed suicide. The kingdom thus became part of the Mughal empire. The storming of the fortress of Chittor was one of the most famous military feats of Akbar. Rana Udai Singh was its ruler. The independent attitude of his principality proved too much for Akbar's ambition and he laid siege of Chittor in AD 1567. Jai Mal, the brave general of Udai Singh, offered stout resistance to the attackers but died fighting in the battlefield. The fall of Chittor was followed by the submission of the chiefs of Ranthambhor and Kalinjar. But still a formidable enemy remained in Rana Pratap, the son of Udai Singh. He defied Akbar and refused to acknowledge his supremacy. Akbar sent a strong army under Man Singh and Asaf Khan to subdue the Rana.
A fierce battle was fought at the pass of Haldighati near. Gogunda in 1576. Rana Pratap was defeated after a stubborn contest. However, the Rana succeeded in recovering the greater part of his kingdom and founded the new capital of Udaipur. He died in 1577, leaving his son Amar Singh as his heir. Despite Akbar's success in other regions of Rajasthan his object in Mewar remained unfulfilled. Rajasthan was merely a 'suba' or province with its headquarters at Ajmer.
In 1572, Akbar personally headed an expedition to Gujarat. Ahmedabad was captured. Surat fell in 1573. It was in order to commemorate his victory of Gujarat that Akbar got the Buland Darwaza constructed at Sikri. Akbar personally marched against Bihar as well and drove out Daud in 1574 from Patna and Hajipur. Bengal was also captured. Orissa, which was under the Afghans, fell to Man Singh in 1592. In 1591 Akbar began his attempt to conquer the Deccan. But while Khandesh offered submission, Ahmadnagar was gallantly defended by Chand Bibii Akbar a1111exed parts of Ahmadnagar in 1600. Berar was also annexed. The captur? of Asirgarh in 1601 marked the climax of Akbar's career of conquest. At his death in 1605, his empire included Kashmir, Sind, Kandahar, and extended as far as the Godavari in the Deccan.
Akbar proved successful in his empire-building not merely because of his military prowess but also because of his enlightened religious policy and his attitude towards the Rajputs.
After overcoming Malwa, then ruled by Baz Bahadur, in 1561, Akbar took up arms against Garh Katanga, a kingdom in Gondwana, ruled by the heroic Rani Durgavati
as the regent of her minor son, Bir Narayan. The Rani was defeated by the army of Asaf Khan, after a strong resistance. She committed suicide. The kingdom thus became part of the Mughal empire. The storming of the fortress of Chittor was one of the most famous military feats of Akbar. Rana Udai Singh was its ruler. The independent attitude of his principality proved too much for Akbar's ambition and he laid siege of Chittor in AD 1567. Jai Mal, the brave general of Udai Singh, offered stout resistance to the attackers but died fighting in the battlefield. The fall of Chittor was followed by the submission of the chiefs of Ranthambhor and Kalinjar. But still a formidable enemy remained in Rana Pratap, the son of Udai Singh. He defied Akbar and refused to acknowledge his supremacy. Akbar sent a strong army under Man Singh and Asaf Khan to subdue the Rana.
A fierce battle was fought at the pass of Haldighati near. Gogunda in 1576. Rana Pratap was defeated after a stubborn contest. However, the Rana succeeded in recovering the greater part of his kingdom and founded the new capital of Udaipur. He died in 1577, leaving his son Amar Singh as his heir. Despite Akbar's success in other regions of Rajasthan his object in Mewar remained unfulfilled. Rajasthan was merely a 'suba' or province with its headquarters at Ajmer.
In 1572, Akbar personally headed an expedition to Gujarat. Ahmedabad was captured. Surat fell in 1573. It was in order to commemorate his victory of Gujarat that Akbar got the Buland Darwaza constructed at Sikri. Akbar personally marched against Bihar as well and drove out Daud in 1574 from Patna and Hajipur. Bengal was also captured. Orissa, which was under the Afghans, fell to Man Singh in 1592. In 1591 Akbar began his attempt to conquer the Deccan. But while Khandesh offered submission, Ahmadnagar was gallantly defended by Chand Bibii Akbar a1111exed parts of Ahmadnagar in 1600. Berar was also annexed. The captur? of Asirgarh in 1601 marked the climax of Akbar's career of conquest. At his death in 1605, his empire included Kashmir, Sind, Kandahar, and extended as far as the Godavari in the Deccan.
Akbar proved successful in his empire-building not merely because of his military prowess but also because of his enlightened religious policy and his attitude towards the Rajputs.
NINE JEWELS (NAV-RATNAS) AT AKBAR'S COURT
NINE JEWELS (NAv-RATNAS) AT AKBAR'S COURT
Following the footsteps of Chandragupta Vlkramaditya of the Gupta period, Akbar maintained a court of nine distin. guished persons who were known as nine jewels or navratnas.
(i) Birbal A brahman of Kalpi, Birbal is known for his gift of humour and wits. His original name was Mahesh Dass. He was in charge of administration of justice at the royal court. He died fighting with the Yousuf-zai tribe on the north-west frontier of India.
(ii) Todar Mal He is known for his expertise in land revenue matters. Starting his career under Sher Shah, he evolved a land revenue system which was followed not only by Sher Shah and Akbar but also by the Marathas.
(iii) Tansen Born at Gwalior, Tansen was a court singer of
Akbar. He is known as Geet SamTat.
(iv) Abul Fazal A profound thinker and writer, Abul Fazal is known for his books, Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari. Prince Salim's instigation led to his murder.
(v) Abdul Rahim Conferred the title of Khan-e-Khana by Akbar, Abdul Rahim was a celebrated Hindi scholar. He is remembered for Rahim Satsai (a collection of dohas). He was also a great scholar of Tufki (he translated 13aburnama into Turki) and Persian languages.
(vi) Raja Man Singh A greatRajput~eneral of Akbar, Man
Singh is credited with defeating Maharana Pratap, in the battle of Haldighati, and the Afghans.
(vii) Faizi A poet laureate of Akbar's court, Faizi is credited
with the translation of Leelawati into Persian.
(viii) Hamim Humam A very close friend of Akbar, Hamim Humam was the chief of royal school (pathasiila).
(ix) Shaikh Mubarak A sufi, Shaikh Mubarak was the brain behind Akbar's MahZAT or declaration which has been wrongly called a 'Decree of Infallibility'.
Following the footsteps of Chandragupta Vlkramaditya of the Gupta period, Akbar maintained a court of nine distin. guished persons who were known as nine jewels or navratnas.
(i) Birbal A brahman of Kalpi, Birbal is known for his gift of humour and wits. His original name was Mahesh Dass. He was in charge of administration of justice at the royal court. He died fighting with the Yousuf-zai tribe on the north-west frontier of India.
(ii) Todar Mal He is known for his expertise in land revenue matters. Starting his career under Sher Shah, he evolved a land revenue system which was followed not only by Sher Shah and Akbar but also by the Marathas.
(iii) Tansen Born at Gwalior, Tansen was a court singer of
Akbar. He is known as Geet SamTat.
(iv) Abul Fazal A profound thinker and writer, Abul Fazal is known for his books, Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari. Prince Salim's instigation led to his murder.
(v) Abdul Rahim Conferred the title of Khan-e-Khana by Akbar, Abdul Rahim was a celebrated Hindi scholar. He is remembered for Rahim Satsai (a collection of dohas). He was also a great scholar of Tufki (he translated 13aburnama into Turki) and Persian languages.
(vi) Raja Man Singh A greatRajput~eneral of Akbar, Man
Singh is credited with defeating Maharana Pratap, in the battle of Haldighati, and the Afghans.
(vii) Faizi A poet laureate of Akbar's court, Faizi is credited
with the translation of Leelawati into Persian.
(viii) Hamim Humam A very close friend of Akbar, Hamim Humam was the chief of royal school (pathasiila).
(ix) Shaikh Mubarak A sufi, Shaikh Mubarak was the brain behind Akbar's MahZAT or declaration which has been wrongly called a 'Decree of Infallibility'.
AKBAR (AD 1556-1605)
AKBAR (AD 1556-1605)
Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar was the son of Humayun and Hamida Banu Begum. The most formidable claimant of Akbar's throne was the Hindu minister of Muhammad Adil Shah, Hemu. Hemu captured Agra and Delhi. Thus Akbar was extremely insecure at his accession.
SECOND BATTLE OF P ANIPAT (1556) Bairam Khan proved a tower of strength to Akbar. He led Akbar's army against Hemu's and defeated the latter at Panipat in AD 1556. Akbar now occupied Agra and Delhi. He got rid of all his Sur rivals and was firmly seated on the throne of Delhi.
Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar was the son of Humayun and Hamida Banu Begum. The most formidable claimant of Akbar's throne was the Hindu minister of Muhammad Adil Shah, Hemu. Hemu captured Agra and Delhi. Thus Akbar was extremely insecure at his accession.
SECOND BATTLE OF P ANIPAT (1556) Bairam Khan proved a tower of strength to Akbar. He led Akbar's army against Hemu's and defeated the latter at Panipat in AD 1556. Akbar now occupied Agra and Delhi. He got rid of all his Sur rivals and was firmly seated on the throne of Delhi.
RESTORATION OF HUMAYUN (AD 1555-1556)
RESTORATION OF HUMAYUN (AD 1555-1556)
In his wanderings, HumayW1 reached Amarkot where he was well-received by its Rana. It was here that his queen gave birth to a son, who was named Akbar. But due to a quarrel he had to flee from there, and at last reached Persia. The Persian king, Shah Tahmasp gave him military help to conquer Kabul and Kandahar from his brother Kamran. He now proceeded to regain his lost throne. He took the . services of an able officer named Bairam Khan. Humayun defeated the weakened Afghan forces of Sikandar Sur and occupied Agra and Delhi in 1555. But he was not destined to rule long. He died from the effects of an accidental fall from the staircase of his library at Delhi (AD 1556).
In his wanderings, HumayW1 reached Amarkot where he was well-received by its Rana. It was here that his queen gave birth to a son, who was named Akbar. But due to a quarrel he had to flee from there, and at last reached Persia. The Persian king, Shah Tahmasp gave him military help to conquer Kabul and Kandahar from his brother Kamran. He now proceeded to regain his lost throne. He took the . services of an able officer named Bairam Khan. Humayun defeated the weakened Afghan forces of Sikandar Sur and occupied Agra and Delhi in 1555. But he was not destined to rule long. He died from the effects of an accidental fall from the staircase of his library at Delhi (AD 1556).
SHER SHAH'S ADMINISTRATION
SHER SHAH'S ADMINISTRATION Great as a conqueror that he was, Sher Shah was greater still as a ruler. He was the first Muslim ruler of India who displayed a real aptitude for civil government. His short rule was marked by many beneficent reforms in every branch of administration. For administrative convenience Sher Shah divided his whole empire into 47 divisions called sarkars (Sher Shah did not divide his kingdom into provinces), and these were again subdivided into smaller administrative units called parganas.
In the field of central administration, Sher Shah followed the Sultanate pattern. There were four main central departments, which were as follows:
(i) Diwan-i-wijarat: The department was related with financial matters such as collecting taxes and maintaining accounts of the state exchequer.
(ii) Diwan-i-arz: Headed by ariz-i-mamalik, it was a military department.
(iii) Diwan-i-insha: Working as a secretariat, it issued royal orders. The head of this department was called dabir.
(iv) Diwan-i-Rasalat: Headed by sadr, this department dealt with the religious and foreign affair matters. Diwani-Kaza, headed by qazi, worked W1der this department. The qazi looked after judicial administration.
There were two important officials at the sarkar level: (i) shiqdar-i-shiqadaran to maintain law and order; and (ii) munshife-i-munshifan to supervise the revenue collection. Three important officials at the paragana level were: (i) shikdar to maintain law and order; (ii) amin to collect revenue; and (iii) munsif to look after judicial matters.
Sher Shah's land revenue policy is an important landmark in the history of Indian agrarian system. After a survey of the lands (tinder the supervision of Ahmad Khan) according to a uniform system, Sher Shah settled the land revenue directly with the tillers of the soil and fixed the state demand at one-third of the gross produce payable either in cash or kind depending on the productivity of land and crop. For measurement of the land, sikandari gaja (32 points) was made the base. To prevent the tenants from being W1duly harassed, their rights and liabilities were clearly defined in documents known as pattas (title deeds) and kabuliyats (deed of agreement). Each peasant thus knew what he had to pay.
Sher Shah abolished the system of landlords and middlemen in his revenue administration. His revenue management is compared with the modem Ryotwari settlement. Todar Mal contributed greatly in the development of the revenue policy of Sher Shah. During the rule of Sher Shah, peasants had also to pay jaribana (survey charge) and muhasilana (tax collection charge). The rates of these charges were 2.5 per cent and 5 per cent respectively. Sher Shah's land revenue system was scientific. This is why Akbar also adopted the same revenue policy, albeit with some amendments.
Keen on increasing the efficiency of his army, Sher Shah personally supervised the recruitment of the soldiers and paid them directly. He revived Ala-ud-din Khalji's system of branding the horses (daag) and keeping a descriptive roll of soldiers (chehra).
Sher Shah introduced a regular postal service. He attempted to fix standard weights and measures. Sher Shah's currency reform deserves high praise. He issued a large number of silver coins (dam) and abolished all old and mixed metal currency. His silver rupia after elimination of its inscription .was current till 1835 and formed the basis of the later British Indian currency. He promoted the cause of trade and commerce by reducing the number of the customs duty collection points to just two. Goods produced in Bengal or imported from outside had to pay customs at Sikrigali, at the border of Bengal and Bihar, while goods from West and Central Asia paid customs duty at the Indus. Sher Shah improved communications by building roads. Four important roads constructed by him were as follows: (i) Grand trunk road from SW1argaon to Peshawar; (ii) road from Agra to Multan via Burhanpur and Delhi; (iii) road from Multan to Lahore; and (iv) road from Mandu to Agra. Of these four roads, the first was the most important. The roads built by Sher Shah are called 'the arteries of the empire'. The roads were lined with trees, wells and rest
houses.
Sher Shah was also a great builder. The stately I mausoleum which he built for himself at Sasaram is one of the finest in India. It is considered as a culmination of the Sultanate architecture and a starting point for the Mughal architecture developed later. The Old Fort (Purana Qila) in Delhi is another important architectural creation of Sher Shah. But the Afghan resurgence was short-lived.
In the field of central administration, Sher Shah followed the Sultanate pattern. There were four main central departments, which were as follows:
(i) Diwan-i-wijarat: The department was related with financial matters such as collecting taxes and maintaining accounts of the state exchequer.
(ii) Diwan-i-arz: Headed by ariz-i-mamalik, it was a military department.
(iii) Diwan-i-insha: Working as a secretariat, it issued royal orders. The head of this department was called dabir.
(iv) Diwan-i-Rasalat: Headed by sadr, this department dealt with the religious and foreign affair matters. Diwani-Kaza, headed by qazi, worked W1der this department. The qazi looked after judicial administration.
There were two important officials at the sarkar level: (i) shiqdar-i-shiqadaran to maintain law and order; and (ii) munshife-i-munshifan to supervise the revenue collection. Three important officials at the paragana level were: (i) shikdar to maintain law and order; (ii) amin to collect revenue; and (iii) munsif to look after judicial matters.
Sher Shah's land revenue policy is an important landmark in the history of Indian agrarian system. After a survey of the lands (tinder the supervision of Ahmad Khan) according to a uniform system, Sher Shah settled the land revenue directly with the tillers of the soil and fixed the state demand at one-third of the gross produce payable either in cash or kind depending on the productivity of land and crop. For measurement of the land, sikandari gaja (32 points) was made the base. To prevent the tenants from being W1duly harassed, their rights and liabilities were clearly defined in documents known as pattas (title deeds) and kabuliyats (deed of agreement). Each peasant thus knew what he had to pay.
Sher Shah abolished the system of landlords and middlemen in his revenue administration. His revenue management is compared with the modem Ryotwari settlement. Todar Mal contributed greatly in the development of the revenue policy of Sher Shah. During the rule of Sher Shah, peasants had also to pay jaribana (survey charge) and muhasilana (tax collection charge). The rates of these charges were 2.5 per cent and 5 per cent respectively. Sher Shah's land revenue system was scientific. This is why Akbar also adopted the same revenue policy, albeit with some amendments.
Keen on increasing the efficiency of his army, Sher Shah personally supervised the recruitment of the soldiers and paid them directly. He revived Ala-ud-din Khalji's system of branding the horses (daag) and keeping a descriptive roll of soldiers (chehra).
Sher Shah introduced a regular postal service. He attempted to fix standard weights and measures. Sher Shah's currency reform deserves high praise. He issued a large number of silver coins (dam) and abolished all old and mixed metal currency. His silver rupia after elimination of its inscription .was current till 1835 and formed the basis of the later British Indian currency. He promoted the cause of trade and commerce by reducing the number of the customs duty collection points to just two. Goods produced in Bengal or imported from outside had to pay customs at Sikrigali, at the border of Bengal and Bihar, while goods from West and Central Asia paid customs duty at the Indus. Sher Shah improved communications by building roads. Four important roads constructed by him were as follows: (i) Grand trunk road from SW1argaon to Peshawar; (ii) road from Agra to Multan via Burhanpur and Delhi; (iii) road from Multan to Lahore; and (iv) road from Mandu to Agra. Of these four roads, the first was the most important. The roads built by Sher Shah are called 'the arteries of the empire'. The roads were lined with trees, wells and rest
houses.
Sher Shah was also a great builder. The stately I mausoleum which he built for himself at Sasaram is one of the finest in India. It is considered as a culmination of the Sultanate architecture and a starting point for the Mughal architecture developed later. The Old Fort (Purana Qila) in Delhi is another important architectural creation of Sher Shah. But the Afghan resurgence was short-lived.
SHER KHAN VS. HUMAYUN
SHER KHAN VS. HUMAYUN Humayun made the mistake of proceeding to Chunar instead of Gaur. This helped Sher Khan in conquering Gaur. When Humayun proceeded towards Gaur the Afghan, instead of offering resistance, lured him into a perilous advance into Bengal with the object of cutting off his retreat. Though Humayun conquered Gaur he wasted time in pleasure and festivities. In the meantime, Sher Shah recovered Chunar, Jaunpur and besieged Kanauj. He then defeated Humayun at Chausa
near Buxar in 1539. Sher Khan now assumed the title of Sher Shah and proclaimed himself Emperor of Hindustan. Next year Humayun tried to retrieve his fortunes but suffered anotller defeat at Bilgram near Kanauj in 1540. From now onwards Humayun became a fugitive living the life of a wanderer for 15 years. Sher Shah turned his attention towards Punjab, Multan and Sind. He conquered them in no time.
He then subjugated Malwa and invested the Raisin fort then held by Puran Mal. Sher Shah still had one more Rajput enemy, the Rathor chief of Marwar, Maldev. To defeat him Sher Shah had to resort to treachery. Sher Shah won the battle but it was a pyrrhic victory. His last venture was the siege of Kalinjar which he captured. But he was killed in the moment of victory by an accidental explosion in 1545.
near Buxar in 1539. Sher Khan now assumed the title of Sher Shah and proclaimed himself Emperor of Hindustan. Next year Humayun tried to retrieve his fortunes but suffered anotller defeat at Bilgram near Kanauj in 1540. From now onwards Humayun became a fugitive living the life of a wanderer for 15 years. Sher Shah turned his attention towards Punjab, Multan and Sind. He conquered them in no time.
He then subjugated Malwa and invested the Raisin fort then held by Puran Mal. Sher Shah still had one more Rajput enemy, the Rathor chief of Marwar, Maldev. To defeat him Sher Shah had to resort to treachery. Sher Shah won the battle but it was a pyrrhic victory. His last venture was the siege of Kalinjar which he captured. But he was killed in the moment of victory by an accidental explosion in 1545.
AFGHAN REVIVAL: SHER SHAH SURI (1540-1545)
AFGHAN REVIVAL: SHER SHAH SURI (1540-1545)
Sher Shah's original name was Farid. In AD 1522, Farid took service under Bahar Khan Lohani, the ruler of Bihar. His master rewarded him with the title of Sher Khan for his bravery in killing a tiger single-handed. But the intrigues of his enemies compelled him to leave Bihar and he joined the camp of Babur in 1527. After the death of Bahar Khan Lohani, Sher Khan left Mughal service and became the ruler of Bihar. He next married the widow of Bahar Khan Lohani in order to secure the fort of Chunar. Sher Khan overcame the confederacy of jealous Afghan nobles of Bihar at Surajgarh in AD 1536. This made him the undisputed master of Bihar. He next captured Bengal.
Sher Shah's original name was Farid. In AD 1522, Farid took service under Bahar Khan Lohani, the ruler of Bihar. His master rewarded him with the title of Sher Khan for his bravery in killing a tiger single-handed. But the intrigues of his enemies compelled him to leave Bihar and he joined the camp of Babur in 1527. After the death of Bahar Khan Lohani, Sher Khan left Mughal service and became the ruler of Bihar. He next married the widow of Bahar Khan Lohani in order to secure the fort of Chunar. Sher Khan overcame the confederacy of jealous Afghan nobles of Bihar at Surajgarh in AD 1536. This made him the undisputed master of Bihar. He next captured Bengal.
HUMAYUN (1530-1540)
HUMAYUN (1530-1540)
Babur left behind four sons of whom the eldest, Humayun, succeeded him to the throne. He inherited an insufficient treasury and had to contend with rivals to the throne. Humayun first turned his attention to the Afghans. He laid siege to Chunar, then held by an able Afghan chief named Sher Khan. Humayun made the mistake of not taking possession of the Chunar fort after Sher Khan had made a half-hearted submission. Meanwhile Gujarat demanded his attention, where Bahadur Shah had given shelter to Humayun's en~mies. Humayun attacked him and routed his army. But Sher Khan's advances in the east compelled him to proceed there, thus giving Bahadur Shah time to regroup. Bahadur Shah quickly recovered his kingdom.
Babur left behind four sons of whom the eldest, Humayun, succeeded him to the throne. He inherited an insufficient treasury and had to contend with rivals to the throne. Humayun first turned his attention to the Afghans. He laid siege to Chunar, then held by an able Afghan chief named Sher Khan. Humayun made the mistake of not taking possession of the Chunar fort after Sher Khan had made a half-hearted submission. Meanwhile Gujarat demanded his attention, where Bahadur Shah had given shelter to Humayun's en~mies. Humayun attacked him and routed his army. But Sher Khan's advances in the east compelled him to proceed there, thus giving Bahadur Shah time to regroup. Bahadur Shah quickly recovered his kingdom.
BABUR (1526-1530)
BABUR (1526-1530)
Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur was descended -in the male line from Timur and in the female line from Chengiz Khan. His family belonged to the Chaghtai section of the Turkish race, but he was commonly known as 'Mughal'. He became the ruler of Farghana in Trans-Oxania at the age of eleven years. Unable to fulfil his desire of recapturing Samarkhand, he conquered Kabul in 1504 and then turned his eyes towards India and attacked it four times. His fifth invasion in 1526 was the decisive one.
Having got the submission of Daulat Khan Lodi and Alam _Khan Lodi, Babur proceeded towards Delhi. Meeting the forces()f1b~him Lodi at Panipat on April 21, 1526, he
inflicted a crushing defeat on Ibrahim. The First Battle of Panipat marked the advent of Mughal rule in India. Babur next came to grips with Rana Sanga (Sangram Singh) of Mewar, the most powerful Rajput prince of the time.
Despite a tough show of strength by Rana Sanga, the Battle of Khanua (near Fatehpur Sikri) in March 1527 went in Babur's favour. This weakened the Rajput confederacy and strengthened Babur's position. In 1528, Babur captured the fort of Chanderi, defeating the Rajput ruler, Medini Rai. The backbone of the Rajputs broken, Babur turned to the Afghan chiefs of Bengal and Bihar who were supporting Mahmud Lodi. In the Battle of Ghagra near Patna on May 6, 1529; Babur emerged victorious and concluded a treaty with Nusrat Shah. He next added the fortress of Ranthambhor to his catch.
Babur's success is attributed to the effective use of artillery under Ustad Ali and Mustafa. Though his army was not huge, he was a good general with a keen sense of military strategy and arranged his men to facilitate easy movement from one part of the battle to another. He brought under his hold Punjab, Delhi and the Ganga plains up to Bihar.
Babur died in 1530 and was buried at Arambagh in Agra; later his body was taken to Kabul and buried there. He was, besides being a good general, a cultured and literary man who wrote Persian poetry. His memoirs in Turki Tuzuk-i-Baburi is a valuable work and shows his humane outlook and sensitivity to the beauty of nature.
Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur was descended -in the male line from Timur and in the female line from Chengiz Khan. His family belonged to the Chaghtai section of the Turkish race, but he was commonly known as 'Mughal'. He became the ruler of Farghana in Trans-Oxania at the age of eleven years. Unable to fulfil his desire of recapturing Samarkhand, he conquered Kabul in 1504 and then turned his eyes towards India and attacked it four times. His fifth invasion in 1526 was the decisive one.
Having got the submission of Daulat Khan Lodi and Alam _Khan Lodi, Babur proceeded towards Delhi. Meeting the forces()f1b~him Lodi at Panipat on April 21, 1526, he
inflicted a crushing defeat on Ibrahim. The First Battle of Panipat marked the advent of Mughal rule in India. Babur next came to grips with Rana Sanga (Sangram Singh) of Mewar, the most powerful Rajput prince of the time.
Despite a tough show of strength by Rana Sanga, the Battle of Khanua (near Fatehpur Sikri) in March 1527 went in Babur's favour. This weakened the Rajput confederacy and strengthened Babur's position. In 1528, Babur captured the fort of Chanderi, defeating the Rajput ruler, Medini Rai. The backbone of the Rajputs broken, Babur turned to the Afghan chiefs of Bengal and Bihar who were supporting Mahmud Lodi. In the Battle of Ghagra near Patna on May 6, 1529; Babur emerged victorious and concluded a treaty with Nusrat Shah. He next added the fortress of Ranthambhor to his catch.
Babur's success is attributed to the effective use of artillery under Ustad Ali and Mustafa. Though his army was not huge, he was a good general with a keen sense of military strategy and arranged his men to facilitate easy movement from one part of the battle to another. He brought under his hold Punjab, Delhi and the Ganga plains up to Bihar.
Babur died in 1530 and was buried at Arambagh in Agra; later his body was taken to Kabul and buried there. He was, besides being a good general, a cultured and literary man who wrote Persian poetry. His memoirs in Turki Tuzuk-i-Baburi is a valuable work and shows his humane outlook and sensitivity to the beauty of nature.
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